Jan 8 Flashcards
motivation
force acting within an organism to give behaviour its ENERGY, DIRECTION and PERSISTENCE
energy
STRENGTH and INTENSITY of the behaviour
direction
specific GOAL or AIM of the behaviour
persistence
behaviour is SUSTAINED over time
grand theory
all-encompassing theory that seeks to explain FULL RANGE of motivated action
ie. why we eat, drink, play, compete, fear certain things, read, fall in love, and everything else
2 early grand theories of motivation revolved around…
- instincts
- drives
2 early grand theories were influenced by rise of…
biological determinism
^ the belief that biological factors, like genetics, brain structure & physiology are the primary determinants of human behaviour
the fact that corgis automatically know how to herd sheep without being taught is an example of an…
instinct
instinct
hardwired or “programmed-in” bits of behaviour
don’t require learning
occur in response to some environmental trigger
examples of instincts
corgis’ herding instincts
spiders building webs
birds building nests
early instinct theories
psychologists in late 1800s/early 1900s thought YES, definitely
concept of instinct gained popularity due to influence of evolutionary theory
why did evolutionary theory support early instinct theories?
suggesting that humans have instincts builds a bridge between animal and human behaviours
William James’ view of instincts
- similar to reflexes
- elicited by sensory stimuli
- occur “blindly” the first time (without knowledge of outcome)
BUT subsequent behaviour may change through experience
William James’ 2 principles explaining variability in instincts
- LEARNING can inhibit an instincts
- some instincts are TRANSITORY (only appear at certain times)
examples of William James’ instincts
rivalry
pugnacity
sympathy
acquisitiveness
parental love
jealousy
play
William McDougall’s view of instincts
more extreme than William James’ view
instincts are PRIMARY DRIVERS of all human behaviour
ALL human behaviour can be explained in terms of instincts
every instinct consists of 3 components
William McDougall: 3 components that every instinct consists of
- cognitive
- affective
- conative
McDougall: cognitive aspect of instincts
KNOWING that an object can satisfy the instinct
McDougall: affective aspect of instincts
FEELING/EMOTION that the object arouses in the organism
McDougall: conative aspect of instincts
STRIVING TOWARD/AWAY from the object
William McDougall’s instinct classfications
parental care
combat
curiosity
repulsion
escape
food seeking
sympathy
appeal
pugnacity
play
what’s the problem with McDougall’s classification system?
too many categories
makes the system unwieldly
Holt’s quote criticizing William McDougall’s instinct approach
“If he goes with his fellows, it is the ‘herd instinct’ which activates him; if he walks alone, it is the ‘antisocial instinct’; if he twiddles his thumbs, it is the ‘thumb-twiddling instinct’; if he does not twiddle his thumbs, it is the ‘thumb-not-twiddling instinct’”
points to over-generalization, lack of explanatory power
criticisms of early instinct theories
- no agreement concerning what TYPES or HOW MANY instincts exist
^ list grew to include 6000 instincts by some estimates
- NOMINAL FALLACY: naming doesn’t equal explaining
- CIRCULAR reasoning
- INSUFFICIENT RECOGNITION of role of LEARNING, lack of clear differentiation between instinct and learning
nominal fallacy
naming something doesn’t mean explaining it
criticisms of early instinct theories led to…
decline of instinct theory as a “grand theory” of motivated behaviour
but it remained influential for later emerging fields of ETHOLOGY and EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
ethology
focuses on the study of animal behaviour in natural settings - how behaviour evolved to meet adaptive needs
systematic and objective observations
ie. FIXED-ACTION PATTERNS: pre-programmed behaviours that are triggered by a specific stimulus (SIGN STIMULUS) and follows a predictable, fixed sequences (are STEREOTYPED)
example of fixed-action patterns (ethology)
aggressive behaviour in betta fish
evolutionary psychology
study of how evolutionary processes have shaped human MIND and BEHAVIOURS
both ethology and evolutionary psychology emphasize…
ADAPTIVE functions of behaviour
natural selection
process through which certain traits become MORE or LESS COMMON in a population over time due to ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES
3 key components of natural selection
- variation
- heredity
- differential fitness
variation
individuals in a population vary in traits
ie. size, colour, behaviour
heredity
variation is passed down from parents to offspring
through genes
differential fitness
not all individuals in a population survive and reproduce equally
adaptations! (traits that increase chances of survival & reproductive in a given environment)
^ gradually accumulate over generations
example of genetic motive: caregiving
baby-like features (big eyes, small chin & nose, large forehead) are SIGN STIMULI for eliciting caregiving motivation
called “baby schema” or kindchenschema
“baby-faced” adults = perceived as WARMER, more NAIVE, WEAKER
feel PITY and PROTECTIVE URGES toward those who are wam but seen as INCOMPETENT
response to baby features evolved adaptation to ensure infants receive care and protection
sign stimuli
specific stimuli that trigger pre-programmed behaviours
from evolutionary perspective, aggressive behaviour may serve…
adaptive function in some contexts
2 types of selection
- survival selection
- sexual selection
survival selection
some adaptations increase ODDS OF SURVIVAL
sexual selection
some adaptations increase ODDS OF SECURING A MATE and REPRODUCING
- INTRAsexual selection
- INTERsexual selection
intrasexual selection
driven by COMPETITION among individuals of the SAME SEX
intersexual selection
driven by MATE CHOICE
traits/behaviours that attract mate
ie. catching them fish, dancing for them
aggression as adaptation
- DEFENSE against predators & adversaries, COMPETITION for limited resources (survival selection)
- COMPETITION for mates (intrasexual selection)
- ATTRACTING mates (intersexual selection
gender diffs in aggression
cross-culturally, MEN dramatically more likely to engage in PHYS AGGRESSION than women
ie. 79% of violent crime = committed by men
gender diff emerges EARLY in development
evolutionary view of men’s greater propensity towards violence
derives in part from their historically greater need to COMPETE for MATES
experimental test of idea that mating motivation promotes aggressive motivation in men SETUP
experimental manipulation
MATING MOTIVATION CONDITION: list 5 things that made you feel sexual desire, write in detail about experience involving intense sexual desire
CONTROL CONDITION: list 5 things that made you feel happy, write in detail about experience involving intense happiness
OUTCOME MEASURE: willingness to deliver blast of noise to partner on subsequent task
experimental test of idea that mating motivation promotes aggressive motivation in men FINDINGS
- men primed with mating motive assaulted SAME SEX (but not opposite sex) partner with LOUDER and LONGER blasts of painful noise
^ NO such effect for WOMEN
- didn’t behave aggressively when given opportunity to ASSERT SOCIAL DOMINANCE through other means (told that they won a competition of physical strength)
experimental test of idea that mating motivation promotes aggressive motivation in men TAKEAWAY
findings consistent with EVOLUTIONARY VIEW that men’s greater propensity towards aggression = partly driven by need to COMPETE FOR MATES
other explanations for gender gap in aggression
men are SOCIALIZED according to social norms that encourage phys aggressiveness
diffs in treatment emerge early in life
socializing aggressiveness in early life study
Ps viewed video of startled infant
when told it’s a boy: “he’s angry”
when told it’s a girl: “she’s afraid”
cultures of honour
evidence that male aggression may be CULTURALLY CONDITIONED
cultures of honour (ie. US South):
- place high value on SOCIAL REPUTATION
- feel strong OBLIGATION to DEFEND their honour (often through aggressive means)
cultures of honour are more likely to respond to insult with….
anger and aggression
cultures of honour are more accepting of…
violence in the defense of one’s honour
cultures of honour: lab study
Ps: male Uni students who grew up in NORTH or SOUTH
bumped & insulted by a confederate in hallway outside lab
SOUTHERNERS:
- more likely to think their masculine reputation = threatened
- more likely to subsequently behave in aggressive & domineering way
NO DIFF between northerners & southerners in the no-threat condition
cultures of honour: field study
employers across US sent letters from job applicants who admitted to killing someone in honour-related conflict or theft
SOUTHERN companies = more likely RESPOND POSITIVELY to murder (BUT NOT THEFT) relative to northern companies
why is a culture of honour more prevalent in certain regions, like the Southern US?
historically, based on HERDING ECONOMY - wealth = tied to livestock (cattle, which are vulnerable to theft)
protection of livestock and land becomes CRUCIAL for survival and social status
threats to resources/honour often prompt aggressive responses to maintain status and prevent theft
cultures of honour aren’t result of genetic diffs, but of diffs in…
socialization
- parental modelling
- peer reinforcement
- cultural narratives & values
instincts and genetically programmed behaviour
motivated behaviours (ie. aggression, caregiving) have a GENETIC COMPONENT
have been subject to EVOLUTIONARY PRESSURES
however, they’re subject to far GREATER VARIABILITY, LEARNING, SOCIAL, CULTURAL influences than initial instinct theory would predict
drive theories think that behaviour is motivated to the extent that…
it serves the BODILY NEEDS of the organism
and RESTORES BIOLOGICAL HOMEOSTASIS
homeostasis
process by which organisms maintain STABLE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
despite changes in the external environment
ie. must maintain specific temperature, pH, blood sugar and sodium levels
drive theory: bodily deficits…
bodily deficits are experienced PHYSIOLOGICALLY as internal states of tension called a DRIVE
Freud’s drive theory - all behaviour serves what purpose?
purpose of satisfying biologically-based bodily needs
Freud’s drive theory - recurring conditions like…
HUNGER generate a buildup of psychic energy
NS aims to maintain LOW ENERGY STATE
these inevitable urges DISRUPT the ideal state
Freud - energy buildups create what?
psychological discomfort (anxiety)
prolonged buildup could threaten physical & psychological health
to Freud, drive is what?
drive is an EMERGENCY SIGNAL
that compels action to reduce discomfort and restore balance
Freud’s drive theory: SOURCE
a bodily deficit occurs
ie. blood sugar drops & sense of hunger emerges
Freud’s drive theory: IMPETUS
the intensity of the bodily deficit grows
& emerges into consciousness as a psychological discomfort (anxiety)
Freud’s drive theory: OBJECT
seeking to reduce anxiety & satisfy the bodily deficit
the person searches out & consumes a need-satisfying environmental object (ie. food)
Freud’s drive theory: AIM
if the environmental object successfully satisfies the bodily deficit…
satisfaction occurs & quiets anxiety
(at least for a period of time)
Freud: argued for how many categories of drives?
2
EROS (life instinct)
THANATOS (death instinct)
eros
life instinct
drive for life, survival, reproduction & pleasure
food water sleep sex nurturance affiliation
thanatos
death instinct
drive for rest, inactivity, return to inanimate state
often expressed through aggression, destruction, self-harm
Freud’s defensive strategies
learned strategies for managing sexual and aggressive drives
allow them to be channeled in socially acceptable ways
Hull’s drive theory
Hull’s view of drive: POOLED energy source composed of ALL CURRENT BODILY DEFICITS/DISTURBANCES
ie. food water sleep and mate deprivation and tissue damage/pain
what did Hull use to build and test his drive theory?
modern scientific method
high vs low motivation could be predicted & experimentally manipulated
ie. deprive animal of food/water/sleep and then drive should increase in proportion to the duration of the deprivation
key premises of Hull’s drive theory
- behaviour is motivated by drive reduction
- “drive is an energizer not a guide”
^ HABIT, not drive, directs behaviour
- habits derive from learning
^ RELIEF following drive reduction reinforces habit
- “drive, cue, response, reward”
Hull’s “drive, cue, response, reward”
DRIVE energizes behavioural search for a stimulus (CUE)
when the cue is attained (through RESPONSE) it reinforces (REWARDS) that behavioural response
Hull’s later 3rd addition to causes of behaviour
incentive motivation
^ value of the stimulus (quantity or quality)
incentive motivation (Hull)
value of stimulus (quantity or quality) impacts behaviour
Hull - the strength of behaviour is a function of…
- DRIVE (biological motivation like hunger)
- HABIT (probability of the motivated behaviour acquired through learning)
- INCENTIVE (environmental motivation - reward)
limitations of drive approach
- NOT ALL MOTIVATIONS ARISE FROM PHYSIOLOGICAL DEFICITS
ie. rats will explore new environments even when not hungry/thirsty
ie. humans will voluntarily subject themselves to food deprivation in order to lose weight (sometimes to dangerous extent)
ie. later theories of human motivation emphasize psychological needs (ie. for affiliation, for achievement)
- EXTERNAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ARE UNDEREMPHASIZED
instinct and drive theory contributions to modern understanding of motivation
today psychologists focus on narrower questions, like…
- how do rewards influence motivation?
- what role do emotions do play in persistence?
- how does social connection shape motivation?
