Midterm 3 parades Flashcards
What are the pressures that influence capillary exchange?
Hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure
Explain Hydrostatic pressure
Pushes fluid across the boundary
Explain Osmotic pressure
Pulls fluid thru the boundary
what influences the vasomotor tone of our blood vessels
sympathetic nervous system which innervates the smooth muscles to cause vasodilation and vasoconstricton
what is the function of the lymph node
filter lymph and activate immune response
when are lymph nodes most active
where there is an infection
What is the function of the spleen
stores breakdown products of RBCs for later re-use, stores blood platelets, site of fetal erythrocyte production (normally ceases after birth)
when is the spleen most active
where there is any injury or disease that affects the blood supply
What is the function of the tonsil
gather and remove many of the pathogens entering the pharynx in food or inhaled air
When is the tonsil most active
during childhood (ages 4-10)
what is the function of the Thymus (lymph system)
trains T cells (does not directly fight antigens)
when is the thymus most active
during childhood (neo-natal and pre-adolescent periods)
what is the principal lymphoid organ
lymph node
how does lymph flow through a lymph node
flows into the node thru afferent lymphatic vessels and filters thru to exit thru the efferent lymphatic vessels
Why are there fewer efferent than afferent vessels in the lymph node
to slow the flow to allow time for filtration
What is the simplest lymphoid organ
the tonsils
What is the distribution of the lymphatic vessels
right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct
What body parts does the thoracic duct drain
all of body EXCEPT right upper arm, right side of head and thorax
What body parts does the Right Lymphatic duct drain
Right upper arm and the right side of head and thorax
what is a lacteal
special lymphatic capillaries of small intestines that take up lipids
What is Peyer’s Patches
Clusters of lymphoid follicles found in the wall of the distal portion of the small intestine
what is the function of Peyer’s patches
- destroy bacteria, preventing them from breaching the intestinal wall;
- Generate “memory” lymphocytes (for long term immunity)
Which cells mature in the Hassall’s corpusles (found in thymus)
Regulatory T cells (prevents autoimmune responses)
What is the difference between innate and adaptive immune systems?
Innate Immune system is
Non-specific
Has 2 lines of defense (skin and mucosa; cells, chemicals
adaptive immune system is specific
specific (this is 3rd line of defense)
attacks a particular foreign substance
takes longer to react than the innate
What cells are considered under Innate Immune System
Phagocytes
NK (natural killer) cells
What cells are considered under Adaptive Immune System
B Cells (humoral immunity) T cells (cellular immunity)
What are the cardinal signs of inflammation
redness heat swelling pain (and sometimes; impairment of function)
What is the landmark of the second-line of defense in our immune system?
inflammation
What are the steps of phagocyte mobilization
- Leukocytosis: increased number of white blood cells in bloodstream
- margination: : Leukocytes cling to capillary walls (due to cell adhesion molecules )
- Diapedesis: Leukocytes pass through capillary walls
- Chemotaxis: attract neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes to area of injury
What is a lysosome
membrane-enclosed cellular organelle (garbage disposal of cell)
what does a lysosome contain
acid hydrolase enzymes
What does a lysosome do
breaks down waste materials and cellular debris
What are the different antimicrobial proteins and how do they function to protect us from disease?
Interferons and Complement:
• Attack micro oganisms directly
• Hinder microorganisms ability to reproduce
Functions:
• Anti-viral
• Reduce inflammation
• Activate macrophages and mobilize NK cells
What do T cells and B cells undergo training for?
immunocompetence and self-tolerance
What is immunocompetence
they are able to recognize and bind to a specific antigen
what is self-tolerance
unresponsive to self antigens
What are the cells of the humoral arm of immunity?
(antibody-mediated) B lymphocyte
What are the cells of the cellular arm of immunity?
(cell-mediated) composed of T cells
Where do T cells achieve immunocompetence and tolerance? What are their functions?
T cells (not antibodies) achieve immunocompetence in the Thymus • Recognize an bind a specific antigen
Where do B cells achieve immunocompetence and tolerance? What are their functions?
B cells (membrane bound antibodies) achieve immunocompetence in red bone marrow • Recognize and bind a specific antigen
What are the functions of the cellular arm of the adaptive immune system, Th cell
Th: help activate B cells, other T cells, and macrophages, and direct the adaptive immune response.
What are the functions of the cellular arm of the adaptive immune system, Tc cell
TC: destroy any cells in the body that harbor anything foreign
What are the functions of the cellular arm of the adaptive immune system, memory T cell
Memory T cell: respond quickly after any subsequent encounter with the same antigen
What are the antigen presenting cells or APCs?
Dendritic cells (in connective tissues and epidermis)
Macrophages (in connective tissues and epidermis)
B cells
What are the different type of antibodies/immunoglobins
IgD
IgG
Ige
What is the function of IgD
antigen receptor of B cell
what are the functions of the lymphatic system
Fluid balance (lymphatic vessels and systems) • Returns cleansed interstitial fluid and leaked plasma proteins back into the blood. Immunity/defense (lymphoid organs) Nutrition/digestion (Lacteals)
What is the function of IgG
(most abundant) Protects against bacteria, viruses, & toxins in blood in and lymph. (Called good mother as is the antibody mother passes to baby)
What is the function of IgE
Causes basophil cells to release histamine and other chemicals that mediate inflammation to an allergic reaction and parasitic infection
What is immediate and delayed hypersensitivity?
Immediate Hypersensitivity are allergies where as delayed hypersensitivity is cell-mediated
What arm of the adaptive immune system is responsible for immediate and delayed hypersensitivity
Immediate Hypersensitivity: Humoral
Delayed Hypersensitivity: Cellular
what is fever
Systemic response to invading microorganisms
What is a pyrogen
Chemical released by leukocytes and macrophages when exposed to foreign substances in body. Pyrogens act on the body’s thermostat (hypothalamus) raising the body’s temp above normal.
What is the effect of fever on the spleen and liver?
Can cause them to sequester iron and zinc.
what is active immunity
provokes immune system • Naturally acquired o Infection (contact with pathogen) • Artificially acquired o Vaccine (dead or attenuated pathogens)
what is passive immunity
• Naturally acquired
o Antibodies pass from mother to fetus via placenta
o To infant in her mother’s milk
• Artificially acquired
o Injection of immune serum (gamma globulin)
do both active and passive immunities use antibodies?
yes
is vacination active or passive immunity?
passive
Is acquiring a disease active or passive immunity?
active
Does passive immunity establish immunological memory
No, as B cells are not challenged
How are TH (T-helper) cells activated to grow and divide?
(Recognition leads to binding) (must be able to recognize self from own self)
binding (binds to the bad guy) and
co-stimulation (helping be cell finish it’s job) (release of interleukins)
What does a Helper T-cell need for growth and division (proliferation)?
Cytokines (includes interferons and interleukins)
What is a plasma cell?
Effector B cell
what does a plasma cell produce or generate
antibodies
where do plasma cells come from
Antigen-activated B cells (B Cells clone and give rise to Plasma cells)
What is apoptosis?
Programmed cell death
What is neutralization?
Simplest mechanism- Masks dangerous parts of bacterial exotoxins; viruses
what is the body’s primary response to an encounter with an antigen
Meets antigen, b cell binds to antigen, proliferates to clone memory B cells (that are primed to respond to same antigen) and plasma cells (that secrete antibodies).
What is the body’s secondary response to an encounter with an antigen
When encounters same antigen later, the B cells are already on alert. Therefore cloning is faster so antibodies secreted faster.
What is the significance of CD4 and CD8?
They are surface receptors but are distinct from T cell antigen receptors. They play a role interactions between T cells and other cells
what is function of all organs/tissues/cells of the entire respiratory tract.
To supply the body with oxygen and dispose of dioxide
what is the function of the nose and nasal cavity
– Provides an airway for respiration – Moistens and warms entering air – Filters and cleans inspired air – Serves as a resonating chamber for speech – Produces mucus
what is the function of the paranasal sinuses
– Provides an airway for respiration – Moistens and warms entering air – Filters and cleans inspired air – Serves as a resonating chamber for speech – Produces mucus and – Lightens skull
what is the function of the pharynx
passageway for air and food
what is the function of the larynx
– Air passageway
– Prevents food from entering lower respiratory tract
– Voice production
what is the function of the trachea
– Air passageway
– Cleans, warms, and moistens incoming air
what is the function of the bronchi and their branches
– Air passageways connecting trachea with alveoli
– Cleans, warms, and moistens incoming air
What is the function of the lungs
House respiratory passages smaller than the main bronci
what is the function of the alveoli
– Main sites of gas exchange
– Reduces surface tension
– Helps prevent lung collapse
What is the role of macrophages in the lower respiratory tract?
Alveolar macrophages keep alveolar surfaces sterile
what is the anatomcal difference between the left and right bronchus
Left Bronchus is more horizontal
Right Bronchus is larger in diameter and more vertical
What is the function of the respiratory zone
actual site of gas exchange
What is the function of the conducting zone
- provide rigid conduits for air to reach gas exchange sites
* cleanse, humidify, and warm incoming air.
Know the blood supply and venous drainage of the lungs.
Pulmonary arteries deliver systemic venous blood
• Branch profusely, along with bronchi
• Feed into the pulmonary capillary networks
Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from respiratory zones to the heart
What are the muscles of respiration?
Diaphragm
External and interna intercostal muscles
Know voice production
Speech: intermittent release of expired air as the glottis opens and closes
– Length and size of glottis → ∆ pitch
– tension of cords → faster vibration → narrow slit → ↑ higher pitch
– Wide glottis → deep tone
– Males, true cords become longer and thicker
→ vibrate more slowly
• Loudness – forcing air out
What secretes surfactant?
Respiratory membrane
What cell in the respiratory zone produces surfactant?
Type II cells
What is type II cells role in decreasing surface tension?
It decreases the cohesiveness of water molecules.
What is Boyle’s law?
Pulmonary ventilation
more Volume, less Pressure
less Volume, more Pressure
What is intrapulmonary pressure (Ppul)
the pressure in the alveoli
what is intraplueral pressure (Pip)
the pressure in the pleural cavity
what is Dalton’s Law
reveals how a gas behaves when it is a part of a mixture of gases.
• Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted by each gas
• The partial pressure of each gas is directly proportional to its percentage in the mixture
what is Henry’s Law
helps us understand movement of gases into and out of solution.
• When a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid, each gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure
• The amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid depends upon its solubility
• CO2 is 20 times more soluble in water than O2
• Very little N2 dissolves in water 40 times less soluble than CO2
What is the partial pressure of oxygen? How do we arrive at this number using atmospheric pressure?
Total pressure of O2 = 20.9%
To find partial pressure: 760(atmospheric pressure) x Total Pressure = Partial Pressure
Therefore: 760 x 20.9 = 158.84 mm Hg (approx 159 mm Hg)
what will impair the ability of getting oxygen to the tissues
Hypoxia
a. Inadequate O2 delivery to tissues
b. Due to a variety of causes
i. Too few RBCs
ii. Abnormal or too little Hb
iii. Blocked circulation
iv. Metabolic poisons
v. Pulmonary disease
vi. Carbon monoxide (type of gas that competes with O2’s loading on the Hb molecule. Has an affinity to Hb 200 times more than O2 does)
Know and understand ventilation/perfusion coupling.
Ventilation: amount of gas reaching the alveoli
Perfusion: blood flow reaching the alveoli
Ventilation and perfusion must be matched (coupled) for efficient gas exchange
• Changes in Po2 in the alveoli cause changes in the diameters of the arterioles
What do the arterioles do when ventilation is high or low?
Where alveolar O2 is high, arterioles dilate
Where alveolar O2 is low, arterioles constrict
What is a spirometer?
instrument used to measure respiratory volumes and capacities
what is a spirometer used for?
Spirometry can distinguish between
– Obstructive pulmonary disease—increased airway resistance (e.g., bronchitis) inc TLC, FRV, RV
– Restrictive disorders—reduction in total lung capacity due to structural or functional lung changes (e.g., fibrosis or TB) dec VC, TLC, FRV, RV
Know the non-respiratory gas movements.
Most result from reflex action
Examples include:
• cough (deep breath, closing glottis and forcing air superiorly from the lung against a closed glottis; glottis opens suddenly and a blast of air rushes forward)
• sneeze ( air released through nose, crying, laughing, hiccups)
• sudden inspiration; sound occurs when inspired air hits vocal folds of closing glottis)
• yawns (very deep inspiration taken with jaws wide open; ventilates all alveoli)
Why is carbon monoxide lethal to us?
Because it does not unload form Hb. It’s a type of gas that competes with O2’s loading on the Hb molecule. Has an affinity to Hb 200 times more than O2 does
