Midterm #2 -> END: Terms Flashcards
“In Conflict Zones, People Often Know Someone Who Has Been Affected By The Conflict” - What Does This Lead To? (3)
- Intergroup anxiety -> contact avoidance
- Such negatively evaluated objects more likely to be avoided, as well as people with initial negative impressions of them
- How do we heal divided relations if groups are too scared to come into contact with each other?
4 Indirect Forms of Intergroup Contact:
- Extended contact (Wright)
- Parasocial contact (Paluck)
- Storytelling (Vezzali)
- Imagined contact (Crisp & Turner)
Extended Contact:
Having an ingroup friend who has outgroup friends reduces prejudice towards the outgroup (enough to change your attitude)
Extended Contact - How does it get stronger?
The effect is stronger when more ingroup friends have outgroup friends
If the number of extended contacts increase its effects, does the relationship between you and the ingroup friend affect it as well?
Findings: the closer the ingroup member is to you, the stronger the contact effects (hence, positive effects with friends/family, not with neighbours/work colleagues)
How does self-consciousness tie into extended contact?
People who tend to care what others think show stronger extended contact effects
Meta-Analytic Results:
Some evidence that extended contact has powerful effects of prejudice:
- R = .42 (k = 8, 95%)
- Most powerful meta-analysis
- R = .25 (95%)
Why do cross-group friendships not affect ingroup norms? What’s the general takeaway?
- Subtyping, Friendships lead to decategorization/lower salience
- TAKEAWAY: extended contact affects outgroup attitudes - positive increases/impacts on inclusion of other in the self, ingroup norms, outgroup norms, and intergroup anxiety
How does extended contact work? (4)
1: Inclusion of other in the self:
- Cognitive inclusion of the target ingroup and outgroup members in the self
2: Ingroup norms
- Members expressing tolerant, expected behaviour
3: Outgroup norms
- Outgroup members exhibit tolerant behaviour towards ingroup
4: Intergroup anxiety
- Lower anxiety - not involved in direct contact
Extended contact is primarily cognitive in nature (3)
- Knowledge (a cognitive variable - not a feeling about) of an ingroup member’s contact with an outgroup member
- Inclusion of other in the self is a cognitive measure of interpersonal closeness (Overlap of your values and the other person’s values)
- Group norms (in and outgroup) are cognitive
(What are expected versus actual behaviours)
Extended contact in segregated societies:
- Where positive contact experiences are limited (Lack of opportunity for direct contact - EX: peace walls in Northern Ireland)
- Rely on more heavily extended contact: Effects of extended contact predicted better attitudes (1 year later)
Extended contact group-level variables:
- Extended contact increases group salience
- Affects group-level variables (ingroup norms, outgroup norms etc.) because it takes place at the group level
Extended contact in conflict zones - Infrahumanization
(similar to dehumanization) perceiving the outgroup as less human than the ingroup
- Being “less human” makes it easier to kill in conflict
- We have two derivative emotions:
- Primary Emotions: happiness, anger
- Everyone can experience these - even animals
- Secondary Emotions: hope, bewilderment
- Unique to humans
- Infrahumanization involves when we ascribe more secondary emotions to the ingroup, fewer to the outgroup (thus, dehumanizing outgroup members with traits similar to literal animals)
- Has unique brain regions associated with it - specifically those dealing with social cognition
Extended contact in conflict zones - Competitive Victimhood:
- One’s ingroup = the only legitimate victim of the conflict
- “my group is the only one that have suffered”
- If competitive victimhood is high, stalls any reconciliatory efforts as groups try to “out-victimise” each other
2 problems with extended (and direct) contact:
- How do you highlight who has contact?
- Someone still needs to come into contact with the outgroup
Parasocial Contact:
- Vicarious contact experience experiences through watching TV, listening to the radio, reading stories
- You don’t have contact, but you watch others have it - Based in social learning theory (BANDURA)
Parasocial Contact - Reconciliation Radio vs. HIV Radio Show:
- # 1: educational component
- # 2: social norms component
- RESULTS: no differences between conditions (pre-existing knowledge of intergroup relations was already there)
- But what we do see is a change in social norms (more tolerance)
NEGATIVE CONTACT
What Happens During Conflict When You Have Negative Experiences?
1: Exposure to violence increases realistic threat
2: Exposure to violence increases psychiatric morbidity
3: Increase intergenerational PTSD and mental health problems
Valence asymmetry effects:
General psychological phenomenon that negative stimuli tend to have greater impact than positive stimuli of similar intensity
How Might Negative Attitudes Propogate? (Skydiving Example)
- Negative stimuli more likely to be avoided
- Leaves the negative attitude unchallenged providing neither support for or against the evidence for the negative attitude
Severe Positivity Bias in Contact Literature (2 Issues):
- 1: negative contact is rarely measured
- 2: positive - negative contact are seen as opposite ends of the same spectrum
- The absence of positive contact is taken as evidence for the presence of negative contact
Differences between Negative Contact effects versus Positive Contact effects (Obama’s Birthplace Example)
- Negative contact is consistently stronger
- These results can be replicated in different contexts
What might explain the discrepant effects of Negative Contact effects versus Positive Contact?
Affect-matching hypothesis:
- Negative contact better predict negative outcomes
- EX: Feelings of fear, anger
- Positive contact better predict positive outcomes
- EX: Feelings of happiness, optimism
Positive-Negative Assymetry: Instead of asking which is the more powerful predictor….
- Does previous positive (negative) contact affect future negative (positive) contact?
- Part of reconciliatory efforts is to bring groups back into contact with each other
EX: having positive outgroup contact, but then two weeks later, having negative outgroup contact - Does prior positive contact REDUCE OR AUGMENT the effect of subsequent negative contact? (2)
- REDUCE: having that prior positive contact, you think that this negative contact is just a special case (subtyping)
Negative contact ~ prejudice = smaller correlation - AUGMENT: going in expecting positive experience and this negative experience surprises you - so surprising that you feel vulnerable after “trust” is broken
Negative contact ~ prejudice = larger correlation
EX: having negative outgroup contact, but then two weeks later, having positive outgroup contact - Does prior negative contact REDUCE OR AUGMENT the effect of subsequent positive contact? (4)
- Does prior positive contact REDUCE the effect of subsequent negative contact?
Negative contact ~ prejudice = smaller correlation - Does prior positive contact INCREASE the effect of subsequent negative contact?
Negative contact ~ prejudice = smaller correlation - Does prior negative contact POISON the effect of subsequent positive contact?
Positive contact ~ prejudice = smaller correlation - Does prior negative contact INCREASE the effect of subsequent positive contact?
HOW DOES POSITIVE/NEGATIVE CONTACT AFFECT EVENTUAL POSITIVE/NEGATIVE CONTACT - ANSWER: (2)
- Prior positive contact buffers against the detrimental effects of negative contact
- Prior negative contact positively augments the beneficial effects of positive contact
HOW DOES POSITIVE/NEGATIVE CONTACT AFFECT EVENTUAL POSITIVE/NEGATIVE CONTACT - WHY?: (2)
- Prior negative contact makes you view subsequent contact on intergroup terms
- Prior positive contact makes you view subsequent negative contact as individuals
What is the issue? (2)
- Associated with lower perceived self-efficacy in contact scenarios
- Avoidance of future contact for multiple outgroups
How Concerned Should We Be About Negative Contact?
- VERY
- Negative contact stunt future positive contact opportunities
- Negative contact, however, is relatively rare
INTERGROUP CONTACT: MAJORITIES
Does Ideologically Intolerance Benefit from Positive Contact?
- NO
- If not, then intergroup contact not as useful as once thought
- We still want egalitarian people to benefit from contact (reduce bias; create common ingroups)
- Contact is only really valuable to the extent that it improves attitudes amongst intolerant people
If they were to come into contact with the object of their animosity, and have a positive experience, would it lower their prejudice?
- Theorists think “no”
- ALLPORT: can work unless prejudiced is deeply rooted in the individual
- Williams (1947): Reviewed early evidence on intergroup relations
- RECALL: PREJUDICE IS INFLUENCED BY…LEVEL OF PRIOR PREJUDICE
Intergroup contact… (5 things)
Who constitutes the intolerant?
- Social dominance orientation
- Authoritarianism
Does Ideologically Intolerance Benefit from Positive Contact? (3 points)
- If not, then intergroup contact not as useful as once thought
- We still want egalitarian people to benefit from contact (reduce bias; create common ingroups)
- Contact is only really valuable to the extent that it improves attitudes amongst intolerant people
Social Dominant Theory:
- Natural tendency to form and maintain group-based hierarchies
- If you’re unsatisfied with your status, it may be necessary to step over other groups and hurt them to get what you want
- Rooted in evolutionary-psychological position
- EX: even at 3 months old, we have this natural understanding of dominance
- Hold zero-sum beliefs: gains for immigrants = loss for non-immigrants
- Can only be one winner in society
If Hitler/Stalin/Hendrik Vervoed were to come into contact with a the object of their animosity, and have a positive experience, would it lower their prejudice? (ALLPORT VS. WILLIAMS)
- Theorists think “no”
- ALLPORT: can work unless prejudiced is deeply rooted in the individual
- WILLIAMS: Reviewed early evidence on intergroup relations
(RECALL: PREJUDICE IS INFLUENCED BY…LEVEL OF PRIOR PREJUDICE)
HOW DO WE MOTIVATE SUCH PREJUDICE? WHY THESE HIERARCHIES ARE NATURAL?
Through Legitimizing Myths: widely-shared cultural ideologies that provide moral/intellectual justification for intergroup behaviours
Who constitutes the “intolerant”? (2)
- Social dominance orientation
- Authoritarianism
Types of LMS:
1: Hierarchy-enhancing legitimizing myths
2: Hierarchy-attenuating legitimizing myths:
Social Dominant Theory:
- Natural tendency to form and maintain group-based hierarchies: if you’re unsatisfied with your status, it may be necessary to step over other groups and hurt them to get what you want
- Rooted in evolutionary-psychological position
- EX: even at 3 months old, we have this natural understanding of dominance
Hierarchy-enhancing legitimizing myths:
- Myths that serve group-based hierarchies
- Racism/meritocracy/divine rights of kings
- EX: the royal family, Kim Jong Un
- To get the status you want, you just need to work for it
- EX: women should just keep working and not get pregnant to be as good as men
What do people high in SDO hold? (give/take idea)
- Hold zero-sum beliefs: gains for immigrants = loss for non-immigrants
- Can only be one winner in society
Hierarchy-attenuating legitimizing myths:
- Universal rights / civil rights / anarchism / feminism / nobless oblige (Marxist idea of sharing the resources available to you)
SDO - HOW DO WE MOTIVATE SUCH PREJUDICE? WHY THESE HIERARCHIES ARE NATURAL?
- Through Legitimizing Myths: widely-shared cultural ideologies that provide moral/intellectual justification group intergroup behaviours
What do both types of LMS want? How do they differ?
- To limit intergroup contact
- People who want hierarchies will hold LMS that keep these hierarchies
- Don’t want conflict, because that means that their (hierarchical) position is being challenged
- People who hold hierarchy attenuating LMS don’t want contact because they believe that resources should be shared amongst everyone
- THE CONTRAST BETWEEN THESE TWO LMS CAN CAUSE CONFLICT, but the ultimate goal amongst both groups is to limit intergroup conflict
WHAT PREDICTS SDO?:
- Cultural context
- Group status
- Sex/gender
- Socialization
- Heritability
2 Types of LMS: Hierarchy-attenuating legitimizing myths:
Universal rights / civil rights / anarchism / feminism / nobless oblige (Marxist idea of sharing the resources available to you)
Is SDO genetic? Nurtured?
- Things like sex/gender and heritability can determine SDO as a sort of genetic predisposition
- But contrastingly, things that are bound to change (cultural context, group status, socialization)
- Shows that SDO may not just be measuring personality, but an attitudinal predisposition
What do both types of LMS try to achieve? How do they differ?
- People who want hierarchies will hold LMS that keep these hierarchies
- Don’t want conflict, because that means that their (hierarchical) position is being challenged
- People who hold hierarchy attenuating LMS don’t want contact because they believe that resources should be shared amongst everyone
- THE CONTRAST BETWEEN THESE TWO LMS CAN CAUSE CONFLICT, but the ultimate goal amongst both groups is to limit intergroup conflict
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SDO
- Someone who clings to conventions and traditions
- Submit to authorities - unquestioned
- Aggress against outgroups when permitted (by authorities)
WHAT PREDICTS SDO?: (5)
- Cultural context
- Group status
- Sex/gender
- Socialization
- Heritability
Is SDO genetic? Nurtured?
- Things like sex/gender and heritability can determine SDO as a sort of genetic predisposition
- But contrastingly, things that are bound to change (cultural context, group status, socialization)
- Shows that SDO may not just be measuring personality, but an attitudinal predisposition
How is RWA developed and maintained?
SUMMARY: the more intense of a notion of a dangerous world you hold, the higher your authoritarianism, leading to prejudice against those who challenge convention
RWA - MAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
- Someone who clings to conventions and traditions
- Submit to authorities - unquestioned
- Aggress against outgroups when permitted (by authorities)
Common Themes Within RWA
- More likely to support apartheid
- Opposed to democratization in the former Soviet Union
- Prejudiced against:
- Blacks, Hispanics, homosexuals, feminists, aboriginals, East Indians, Japanese, Chinese, Pakistanis, Filipinos, Africans, Jews, and Arab
How does RWA increase/develop?
The more intense of a notion of a dangerous world you hold, the higher your authoritarianism, leading to prejudice against those who challenge convention
DOUBLE STANDARDS:
- EX: Harsher punishments for gays who committed a crime more than an anti-gay person
- High RWAs think worse of the former Soviet Union to invade its neighbours than the US
- In Russia, high RWAs think worse of Americans for invading its neighbours than Russia
3 common traits of RWA’s
- More likely to support apartheid
- Opposed to democratization in the former Soviet Union
- Prejudiced against: Blacks, Hispanics, homosexuals, feminists, aboriginals, East Indians, Japanese, Chinese, Pakistanis, Filipinos, Africans, Jews, and Arab
LWA
- “Half of all authoritarianisms are left-wing”
- Whereas RWA correlated with political and economic conservatism, LWA correlates with liberalism
- Left-wing authoritarianism is not a myth, but a worrisome reality. Evidence from 13 Eastern European countries
RWA double standard:
- EX: Harsher punishments for gays who committed a crime more than an anti-gay person
- High RWAs think worse of the former Soviet Union to invade its neighbours than the US
- In Russia, high RWAs think worse of Americans for invading its neighbours than Russia
How do SDOs/RWAs hate and why?
- SDO is particularly affected by groups who challenge social hierarchy or are competitive
- SDOs particularly low in empathy (Pratto et al., 1994)
- RWAs are particularly prejudiced towards groups that threaten social order /cohesion and traditional values
- RWAs high in anxiety (Hodson, Hogg & MacInnis, 2009)
LWA
- “Half of all authoritarianisms are left-wing”
- Whereas RWA correlated with political and economic conservatism, LWA correlates with liberalism
- Left-wing authoritarianism is not a myth, but a worrisome reality. Evidence from 13 Eastern European countries
What predicts prejudice?
VARIOUS THINGS:
- Intergroup contact
- Education (own and parents)
- Age
- Sex
- Social norms
- Implicit attitudes
- Socialization
How do SDOs/RWAs hate and why?
- SDO is particularly affected by groups who challenge social hierarchy or are competitive
- SDOs particularly low in empathy (Pratto et al., 1994)
- RWAs are particularly prejudiced towards groups that threaten social order /cohesion and traditional values
- RWAs high in anxiety (Hodson, Hogg & MacInnis, 2009
What percentage of outgroup attitudes is made up of SDO & AUTH:
- SDO & AUTH: 50%
- Other variables: 50%
What predicts prejudice? (7)
- Intergroup contact
- Education (own and parents)
- Age
- Sex
- Social norms
- Implicit attitudes
- Socialization
Can we change SDO/AUTH scores by targeting their core beliefs?***