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PSYC 208 > MIDTERM 1 TERMS > Flashcards

MIDTERM 1 TERMS Flashcards

1
Q

What parts of the brain are responsible for environmental effects on preference?

A

Temporal Lobe & Fusiform Face Area

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2
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

hearing; recognizing and using language

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3
Q

What hormone is associated with categorization?

A

Oxytocin: hormone involved with bonding.
- Released during: Breastfeeding; associated with attachment to child
- Love, cuddling, sexAKA love hormone
- INCREASED COOPERATION BETWEEN INGROUP MEMBERS

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4
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

chemical signals that regulate neural activity; exist in synaptic gaps between axon terminals, various types involved with different areas of life

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5
Q

Kernel of Truth Hypothesis

A

there is some truth to stereotype; often exaggerated; this “truth” may be a falsehood that is presented to us

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6
Q

Concepts

A

group or country of shared feature of related objects (Apple)

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7
Q

Contact With Outgroup Members (Stereotype CR)

A
  • We lack contact with the outgroup - which leaves stereotypes unchallenged (EX: avoiding food you don’t like)
  • When we meet as members of our respective groups, we act in more stereotype-consistent ways. Furthermore, we also fall prey to confirmation biases
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8
Q

Confirmation Bias (Stereotype CR)

A
  • If we pay attention to stereotype-incongruent information, we see the outgroup as being less homogenous
  • Under stress - we fail to process stereotype-incongruent information, and we fall prey to confirmation bias
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9
Q

Availability Bias/Heuristic (Stereotype CR)

A

Things/events that more easily come to mind are judged to happen more frequently. EX: 9/11 being such a significant historical event, that when a terrorist attack is linked to Islam, it receives more media attention compared to other terrorist attacks are not linked to Islam

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10
Q

3 types of individual racism:

A

blatant, symbolic/modern, aversive

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11
Q

Blatant Racism

A

Non-concealed racism; out in the open.
- Use of racial slurs (EX: n-word)
- Usually associated with pre-1990’s Post-1990’s: The new individual racism - More subtle forms of racism/prejudice
- Lack of explicit animosity towards minority groups

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12
Q

Relationship between Amygdala & Stereotyping:

A

Several lines of research confirm a relationship between activation of the amygdala when viewing outgroup faces; the amygdala having an important role in facial recognition, especially those showing emotion

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13
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language

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14
Q

Relationship Between Ingroup Formation/Bias & Oxytocin/Endorphins

A

Regarding ingroup formations, oxytocin and endorphins have been implicated in social bonding
- Higher endorphin release associated with greater group bonding
- Oxytocin related to higher ingroup cooperation and bias opposed to outgroup; Increase in ingroup conformity

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15
Q

Own Race Bias (& its association with the fusiform face area)

A

phenomenon whereby individuals are faster at recognizing members of their own race that those of other races; explained by day-to-day, environmental exposure to members of their own race; the part of the brain involved with recognizing faces (fusiform face area) is more active when viewing faces of one’s own race compared to other-race faces

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16
Q

How is perceptual confirmation relative to Subjective Uncertainty Theory

A

WHEN AT A PARTY ALONE, APPLYING STEREOTYPES TO DIFFERENT GROUPS OF PEOPLE TO FIND ONE IN WHICH YOU ASSOCIATE WITH/FIND THE MOST APPEALING.
- EX: avoiding the group of jocks since they’re airheads, but being attracted towards the nerds because they’re intelligent

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17
Q

What are examples physical resources? What are examples of psychological resources?

A
  • Physical: territory, wealth, jobs, food, oil
  • Psychological: political power, social status, cultural/religious dominance
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18
Q

Does norepinephrine affect activation of the fusiform face area? If so, how?

A

It does have an impact in the activation of the fusiform face area, seen through implicit association tests. Higher levels of stereotypical associations between races/words in regular people, but lower levels of stereotypical associations when a norepinephrine beta blocker was in effect. There was less activation of the fusiform face area, in this case, when looking at black faces.

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19
Q

What are the 2 Classic Theories?

A

Ethnocentrism, Realistic Group Conflict Theory (RGCT)

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20
Q

What are the 4 Contemporary Theories?

A

Social Identity Theory, Optimal Distinctiveness Theory, Subjective Uncertainty Reduction Theory, Terror Management Theory

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21
Q

Ethnocentrism

A

emphasized by Sumner; when a person identifies with their in-group, placing it as superior to outgroups; in-group customs perceived to be right, while others are wrong.
- hypothesized that in times of scarcity, people bind together to form groups to compete for survival
- Ingroup LOVE = Outgroup HATE
- Predicts feelings of in-group superiority
- Attitude towards outgroups is driven by hatred and contempt

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22
Q

Social Identity Theory

A

we exist on a continuum that shifts between the importance of our individual and group identities
- In social settings/groups, the group norms influence how you behave
- Thoughts and feelings of the group become your own thoughts and feelings (“deindividuation” & self-categorization)
- Self-esteem is gained through acting in individual identities, so therefore, self-esteem is then also gained when we act in group identities. We RESERVE parts of our self-esteem that relies on the positive things in which a group does (EX: feeling good when your team wins); also by comparing ourselves to relevant outgroups (EX: rival teams)
- Thus, we achieve positive distinctiveness through ingroup favouritism/bias; when our ingroup is threatened, we must engage in behaviours that increase the group’s status (depend on certain social-contextual factors)

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23
Q

Realistic Group Conflict Theory (RGCT)

A

prejudice and discrimination result from competition for scarce resources; intergroup conflict is born out of the competing goals of two groups for the same, limited resources (if the goals of two groups are similar yet incompatible, conflict/tension arises)
- Conflict is based off real competition; resulting/promoting more cohesiveness and competition
- When resources lessen, the size of “others”/outgroup increases, resulting in more aggressive attitudes towards them

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24
Q

Minimal Group Paradigm (Social Identity Theory)

A

persons categorized on the basis of trivial, minimally important similarities

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25
Q

How does Social Identity Theory predict intergroup relations?

A
  • Stability: is the status of my group stable, or could it change?
  • Legitimacy: is my group’s higher/lower status valid?
  • Permeability: is it possible to move from a lower social status group to a higher statis group
  • 3 STRATEGIES/RESULTS: -Social Mobility: leaving the lower status group for the higher status group; Status is stable, legitimate, and permeable
  • Social Creativity: change comparison dimension, change comparison outgroup (comparing yourself to a lower status), turn a negative into a positive,Status is stable, possibly legitimate, not permeable
  • Social Conflict: status may be stable, not legitimate, and not permeable
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26
Q

Optimal Distinctiveness Theory

A

Positive social identities are achieved when the need for assimilation (within a group) and differentiation are met simultaneously
- proposes 2 opposing needs:
1. Need for assimilation - describes a need or desire for BELONGING (allows us to understand why we immerse ourselves in social groups)
2. Need for differentiation (assimilation into an ingroup indicates its growth in size/population; thus feeling LESS EXCLUSIVE and TOO INCLUSIVE). When this happens, the opposing need for differentiation arises

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27
Q

Subjective Uncertainty Theory

A

the motivational process behind group identity is driven by the need for certainty; while in scenarios that promote uncertainty (EX: parties where you don’t know many people), we attempt combat the situation by looking for certainty
- Overall, uncertain situations lead to a reduction in: a) Control over one’s situation, b) One’s confidence c) Meaning, and promote a) Mistrust and b) Paranoia.
- As a solution, identifying with a social group provides us with normative scripts for behaviour and provides this feeling of certainty (Ingroup bias reflects how the group that one identifies with is seen positively, while outgroups are seen as negatively increasing uncertainty)

28
Q

Terror Management Theory

A

Death has a grasp on human psyche, as we know we’re going to die eventually; this awareness of our mortality significantly influences behaviour (motivation is increased when reminded of it)
- this gives rise to self-esteem (a second process that helps us cope). cultural worldviews provide the standards/norms that we use to measure our self-esteem (BOTH CULTURAL WORLDVIEW + SELF-ESTEEM = BUFFER AGAINST OUR EXISTENTIAL ANXIETY (caused by immortality))
- Predicts that we value ingroup members favourably BECAUSE they ascribe to similar cultural worldviews; thus validating them. outgroupers hold different worldviews that are seen as threats
- Being reminded of our mortality leads to stronger prejudicial reactions to individuals who challenge our cultural worldviews

29
Q

Explicit Conflict

A

Explicit: conflict legitimized and institutionalized by rules or norms
- Behaviour is done to increase the rewards against outgroups
- 2 categories of behaviour:
a) Instrumental Behaviour: behaviours used to help the ingroup win (above all else)
b) Non-Instrumental Behaviour: behaviours that discriminate against outgroups

30
Q

Implicit Conflict

A

conflicts that occur without institutionalized rules and norms
- Occurs when differentiations are made between groups, despite there being no reason for these to occur
- Behaviours performed pose the reduction of ingroup rewards (on the contrary)

31
Q

Objective Conflict

A

conflicts that happen over power, wealth, or territory

32
Q

Subjective Conflict

A

involves attempts to establish positively valued distinctiveness (positive group self-esteem)

33
Q

Destructive Conflict

A

when subjective conflict outlives the objective conflict; A conflict that lasts past its initial cause and continues long after the initial cause has become irrelevant

34
Q

What differentiates RGCT and Ethnocentrism

A

RGCT provides a variety of specific focuses on conflicts - Ethnocentrism mainly focuses on survival and ingroup/outgroup competition?

35
Q

Group Identification/Bias (Terror Management Theory

A
  • Group Identification: (symbolic) Increasing one’s feeling of belonging to a group, therefore increasing sense of symbolic immortality, and thus their overall connection to the world (relieving death anxiety)
  • Group Bias: putting down other groups who challenge the importance of one’s ownBashing other worldviews
36
Q

Fusiform Face Area

A

facial recognition; tied to own-race bias

37
Q

Norepinephrine

A

fight/flight; Regulates activity in the amygdala (FEAR RESPONSE & EMOTIONAL LEARNING).
- Essentially, brain adrenaline associated with stress and fear responses

38
Q

What are the outcomes of categorization?

A

We naturally categorize things. Through doing so, we group perceived instances of a concept in with the prototype = increases perceived similarity within groups
(concepts & prototypes)

39
Q

Prototypes

A

the best example of a concept (honey crisp - sweet & crunchy)

40
Q

Outgroup Homogeneity

A

the tendency for members belonging to an outgroup to all be perceived as similar to other members of the same outgroup
- The more familiarity with our ingroup, the more perceived individuality (rather than outgroup homogeneity)
- Under times of conflict we shift fully to group identities (when joining a group)Times where ingroups can be seen as homogenous; EX - VANCOUVER RIOT

41
Q

Stereotype CR/How Stereotypes Stay Alive (5 ways)

A

Contact with outgroup members, confirmation bias, sub typing, availability heuristic, motivation

42
Q

What is the consequence of stereotyping?

A

perceptual confirmation: interpreting information/behaviour in stereotype-confirming ways

43
Q

Subtyping (Stereotype CR)

A

The tendency for observers to think of targets who disconfirm stereotypes as “exceptions to the rule”

44
Q

Motivational Factors

A
  • Context matters
  • When you’re motivated, or motivated to respect, you are more likely to see them in terms of their position and not their race/ethnicity
45
Q

What does racism refer to?

A

refers to several distinct but related concepts: Institutionalized racism, cultural racism, and individual racism

46
Q

Racism - What Do We Mean By Race?

A

Denote people of similar appearance, ethnicity religion
Natural category (White, Black, Asian…) -> shared genetics, thus shared essence (“all Asian people look the same) -> apply stereotypes
- Racialized people attribute the observed characteristics to genetically heritable traits

47
Q

Racism - What about genetics?

A

Genetic variation - greater variation within groups than between groups
- Calls into question the utility of genetics as a tool for racial categorization

48
Q

Define racism:

A

organized system of privilege (SIT) and bias (ingroup) that systematically disadvantages a group perceived to belong to the same race

49
Q

What are 3 defining features of racism?

A
  • Culturally shared beliefs that groups have distinguishing race-based characteristics that are common to their members
  • The perceived inherent racial characteristics of another group make it inferior to one’s own group
  • Involves not only negative attitudes and beliefs but also the social power that enables these to translate into disparate outcomes that disadvantage other groups or offer unique advantages to one’s own at the expense of others.
50
Q

What is right-wing authoritarianism?

A

A cluster of personality variables that are associated with a ‘right-wing’ attitude to life.
- Clings to convention
Submits to authorities
- Aggresses against outgroups (when permitted)
- Prejudiced against anyone and everyone

51
Q

Symbolic/Modern Racism

A

Both theories are the same, except for the genesis of animosity:
- Symbolic Racism: violation of core values
- Modern Racism: we are socialized to experience negative emotions towards outgroups (fear)
Portray outgroups as violating traditional values of individualism, work ethic, and discipline
- Outgroup members make excessive demands/gotten more than they deserve
- Violation of these values that gives rise to prejudice (not that outgroups are naturally inferior)

52
Q

What is Symbolic/Modern Racism independent of?

A
  • Old-fashioned racism
  • Realistic threats (SOCIALLY TRANSMITTED - FROM ADULT TO CHILD, AND IS AN ATTITUDE THEY’VE LEARNT)
  • Perceived intergroup competition
    Individualism & egalitarianism
  • Voting Policy Redirecting bus loops - Affirmative Action/Welfare
  • Political party affiliation
  • Political ideology
53
Q

Aversive Racism

A
  • Explicitly egalitarian attitudes (are non-prejudiced), sympathize with past injustices
  • Politically liberal individuals
  • Similar to subtle & modern racism = shows in indirect ways
  • When liberal values are not highlighted, they act in prejudiced ways
  • When liberal values are under the spotlight, behave congruently
  • Strongly influenced by social norms If weak and ambiguous
  • Guidelines for behaviour = unclear
  • Basis for judgement is unclear Justify actions to something other than race
  • Will act egalitarian if their possible behaviour could be interpreted as racist
54
Q

What are implicit attitudes?

A

attitudes that influence a person’s feelings and behavior at an unconscious level; fast & slow route to processing
- ANOTHER RESPONSE TO “WE SOLVED RACISM”!

55
Q

Amygdala

A

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

56
Q

Institutionalized Racism

A

Unfair distribution of resources (and maintenance of this distribution) to keep a certain group in power; racist attitudes that are held by the vast majority of people living in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm

57
Q

What happens when one’s ingroup is threatened/accused?

A

High ingroup bias when it comes to accusations of violence (performed by the ingroup); occasional creation of false memories to favour the ingroup; bias memory and information processing in ways that favour the ingroup, and derogate the outgroup

58
Q

Do stereotypes need to be wrong?

A

Notion that stereotypes must be inaccurate is highly debated; it is IMPROPER to think of stereotypes as purely negative.
- There can be inaccurate stereotypes that lead to an erroneous stereotype
EX: few Black people go to college -> Black people “aren’t smart enough” to get into college Such logic ignores centuries of racial discrimination & systemic roots

59
Q

What is the best definiton of a stereotype?

A

“a positive or negative set of beliefs held by an individual about the characteristic of a group of people. It varies in its accuracy, the extent to which the stereotypes’ group members possess these traits, and the extent to which the set of beliefs is shared by others” - Jones

60
Q

How do we apply stereotypes differently to ingroups versus outgroups?

A

We typically assign more positive stereotypes to the ingroup, and more negative stereotypes to the outgroup

61
Q

What is Outgroup Homogeneity

A

the tendency for members belonging to an outgroup to all be perceived as similar to other members of the same outgroup; If we apply the same stereotype to different outgroup members, the result is that all outgroup members (in general) seem similar to each other.
- Increase in perceived similarity between the objects within the category with relatively low levels of contact with the outgroup - thus they remain homogenous through our eyes

62
Q

Perceptual Confirmation

A

the more ambiguous the situation, the more likely our stereotypes are to fill in the blanks to reduce such ambiguity

63
Q

How do stereotypes come about?

A

Categorization of others by gender, race, age, etc. allow us to quickly process an immense amount of social information. With quick classifications made of minimal information, we often make mistakes

64
Q

Our brain is wired to process information at high speeds, but also think deeply and slowly about information; what are the 2 routes/systems?

A
  • Reflective System: involves slow, motivated, deliberate thinking; effortful and takes time. Involved with social interactions Reading over textbook material
  • Reflexive System: relies on automatic associations and procedures; fast and requires little effort. Influences subtle behaviour leading to biases that creep into interaction. Using keys to type out textbook notes
65
Q

Where do stereotypes come from/how are they socially shaped?

A

Socio-cultural explanations: Our brain, reflexive system, and stereotypes are all incredibly adaptive and useful; can pick up associations that appear in our environments If they are negative, these useful systems can create severe negative biases

Role models and group norms: People not only learn stereotypes through mass media, but also through parents, peers, role models, group norms, and culture at large. Often passed down by parents. Overhearing a stranger make a racial remark increases expressions of prejudice. Even more (negatively) influential when a celebrity says so

PSYC 208 (11 decks)

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