Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Human Biology > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Define osteology, basic unit, calcium, foramen, and foramina. What are the three areas of the human skeleton? What are the joints?

A

Osteology: study of the skeletal system; 200 + 6 bones (3 bones per ear that fall off after death)

Basic Unit: bone (as an organ) has osteocytis, or bone cells

Calcium: in all bones; oxidizes to a yellowish tint

Foramen: large opening; eg. bottom of skull

Foramina: smaller, closely joined openings used for ligaments, tendons, blood vessels, and nerves; eg. sacrem

–

*act as three branches to one system

  1. Axial: “axis” of the body; acts as framework and protection of vital organs; includes the skull (brain), vertebrae and backbones (spinal cord), ribs (lungs and heart)
  2. Appendicular: “appendages” that function in movement; include limbs and girdles (pectoral for shoulder, pelvic for hip)
  3. Articulations: “articulate” or connect the other branches; include joints

–

arthrology, study of joints; connect axial and appendicular portions of the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Define ossification. What are the two types of ossification? What are sutures used for? What are the five types of sutures?

A

aka bone formation, or the process of bone hardening from cartilage; cartilage + blood (calcium) = bone

  1. Intramembranous: takes place immediately after birth; requires calcium to begin ossification over a quick period of three months; produces five types of sutures *exception: broken bones always rejoin in a serrated suture and will not re-break at that location
  2. Endochondral: occurs everywhere but the skull and over a long period of time (18-21 years); uses cartilage parts to allow for bone enlargement; bone grows from outside in; uses joints, not sutures to connect bone

–

act as a joint in the skull; should never move after being formed

  1. Serrate: jagged
  2. Lamboidal: looped
  3. Gomphosis: actual teeth within jaws
  4. Dentate: teeth-like
  5. Squamosal: flat, almost straight
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Define condyle, periosteum, ephiphysis, diaphysis, matrix, and the medullary canal.

BONE ANATOMY

A

Condyle: smooth rounded end; ball in “ball and socket” joint

Epicondyle: two smaller rounded heads; traditional bone endings

Periosteum: bright, white wrap of fibers around living bone; provides all blood/nourishment and allows for osmotic exchange

Epiphysis: growth ends of bone; location of endochondrial ossification

Diaphysis: shaft of the bone

Matrix: soft, cancellous (spongy) bone; houses red bone marrow

Medullary Canal: tubular hollow within compact bone; houses yellow bone marrow and acts as a storage for calcium and other deposits

–

  1. spongy matrix (with red bone marrow)
  2. process
  3. compact bone
  4. blood vessel
  5. periosteum
  6. medullary canal (with yellow bone marrow)
  7. epiphysis (2)
  8. diaphysis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Define gingiva, crown, neck, root, maloclussion, pyrrhea, carie, oral, and buccal. What are dentitions? What are the two types of dentition?

A

Gingiva: gums

Crown: bone covered with enamel

Neck: naked bone; no enamel covering

Root: contains nerves

Maloclussion: bad or unaligned jaw; causes headaches

Pyrrhea: severe gingivitis caused by bacterial infestation

Carie: aka cavity; caused by bacteria that have eaten away at the enamel

Oral: opening or stoma

Buccal: includes everthing in mouth

–

aka teeth, or the gomphosis joint within jaws

Deciduous: aka temporary or baby teeth; are cartilagenous with no bone or nerves; only 16

Permanent: 32 total, 16 per jaw (mandible. maxilla); 2-1-2-3 pattern for 2 pair of incisors, 1 pair of canines (cuspids), 2 pairs of premolars (bicuspids), 3 pairs of molars (tricuspids)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What is the bafological curve? What are the divisions of the bafological curve?

A

aka backbone or natural curve of the body; crawling as a baby allows for such alighnment, which is essential for healthy organ growth and function

in-out-in-out for cervical (neck), thorax (chest), abdomen (lower back), and pelvis (hips)

–

all vertebraes are cushioned by dense cartilage, called invertebral disks

Cervical: C1-C7; characterized by dual lateral foramen to allow for blood vessels; allso has bifid split that aligns nerves

Thoracic: T1-T12; downward spinal process

Lumbar: L1-L5; large oval body ad hatchet shaped spinous process; heart shaped

Sacral: S1-S5; fused together through ossification, resulting in serrated sutures

Cocyx: typically comprised of 4 bones; aka tail bone; may lead to paralysis if damaged

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What are the ribs and how is it characterized?

A

part of axial skeleton and protects lungs and heart

Sternum: comprised of three majors parts to form rib cage; head (manubrium), body (fundus), tail (xhyphoid process)

12 Paired Ribs: 7 true ribs (attached directly to sternum by ligaments/cartilage); 3 false ribs (attached to true ribs); 2 floating ribs (no attachment to sternum, but attached in the back to bafological curve)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

AXIAL AND APPENDICULAR SKELETON

A

AXIAL

  1. cranium (skull)
  2. maxilla
  3. mandible
  4. sternum
  5. ribs
  6. vertebrae
  7. sacrum

APPENDICULAR

  1. clavicle
  2. scapula
  3. humerus
  4. ulna
  5. radius
  6. carpals
  7. phalanges
  8. metacarpals
  9. coxal bone
  10. femur
  11. patella
  12. tibia
  13. fibula
  14. tarsals
  15. metatarsals
  16. phalanges
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

PECTORAL GIRDLE

A
  1. clavicle (collar bone)
  2. scapula (shoulder blade)
  3. humerus (upper arm)
  4. ulna
  5. radius (larger epiphysis than ulna’s)
  6. carpals (wrist)
  7. metacarpals (hand)
  8. phalanges (finger)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

PELVIC GIRDLE

A
  1. pubic symphysis
  2. femur (upper leg)
  3. patella (knee cap)
  4. tibia (larger epiphysis than fibula’s)
  5. fibula
  6. tarsals (ankle)
  7. metatarsals (foot)
  8. phalanges (toes)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

PELVIC BONES

A

aka hip bones; comprised of ilium (yellow), ischium (red), and pubis (blue)

Symphysis Pubis: opening of pelvis; visiblein female childbirth

Acetabulum: pocket; coated with cartilage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

SKULL BONES

A
  1. Frontal
  2. Parietal
  3. Occipital
  4. Temporal
  5. Zygomatic Arch
  6. Nasal
  7. Maxilla
  8. Mandible
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What are the hand bones? How are joints classified? What are the two types of joints?

A

8 carpals (wrist), 5 metacarpals (hand), 14 phalanges (fingers)

thumb is known as “pollex” and made of two bones (proximal distal)

all other fingers have three bones (proximal, medial, distal)

–

by movement

SYNARTHROSIS: non-moving; eg. gomphosis joints, sutures

AMPHIARTHROSIS: slightly-moving; eg. back, symphosis pores

DIATHROSIS: free-moving; eg. arms, legs, hands

-

WITH CAVITY: filled with synovial fluid to absorb shock

WITHOUT CAVITY: has small pockets of liquid to cushion bone; aka bursae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Define myology, myoglobin, summation, fatigue, and dual function. What is the basic unit and fiber content of muscle? Define functional unit. What is the difference between a natural and unnatural twitch? What is ACH and ACH-esterase?

A

Myology: study of muscle

Myoglobin: blood-colored liquid protein

Summation: natural, continuous flow of ACH

Fatigue: lack of protein that causes a lack of ACH-esterase

Dual Function: of muscles; allows for movement and heat

Basic Unit: fibers

Fiber Content: 75% interstitial fluid; 20% protein; 3-6% basic salts (KNaCa)

–

Agonist: primary or first mover

Antagonist: opposite action to agonist

Synergistic: help muscle; helps antagonist

Specialist: one action only

*antagonistic movements (agonist-antagonist pairs) are superficial or visible

–

Natural Twitch: involuntary muscle contraction Unnatural

Twitch: aka tetanus; twitching caused by external stimulation

–

ACH: acetylcholine; nuerotransmitter that causes polarity change in muscles

ACH-esterase: repolarizes everything to equilibrium and requires protein

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Explain the following theories: membrane, action potential, sodium potassium, all or none, sliding filament.

A

Membrane: more sodium ions on outside than potassium ions inside; positive outside membrane, negative inside

Action Potential: resting potential of -70 mV; threshold requires 70 mV to contract; subthreshold is any stimulus that is less than 70 mV

Sodium Potassium Pump: SPM keeps positive sodium ions out, negative potassium ions in; electrical impulse allows SPM to “open” and polarity change occurs

All or None: fibers contract all the way or not at all

Sliding Filament: takes place at myoneural junction; filaments become depolarizers and slide across one another to come together; change of polarity causes shortening of muscle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

MUSCLE ULTRASTRUCTUE

A
  1. Process
  2. Tendon
  3. Fundus (body)
  4. Bundle
  5. Sarcolemma
  6. Fiber
  7. Myofibril
  8. Filament
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

MYOFIBRIL ULTRASTRUCTURE

A
  1. Dark Bands: aka A-bands; thick filament of myosin
  2. Light Bands: aka J-bands; thin filament made of actin
  3. Sarcomere: aka Z-bands; location of contraction
  4. H-zone: takes in impulses via end knob
17
Q

NUEROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

A
  1. Dendrite
  2. Cell Body; Soma
  3. Axon
  4. Myelin Sheath
  5. Telodendrils
  6. End Knob
  7. Mitochondria
  8. Pre-Synaptic Vesicles (release ACH)
  9. Conductive Gel (for transmitting electrical impulses)
  10. Synapse
  11. Receptors
18
Q

How are muscles named?

A
  1. By Geometric Shape or Form: Trapezius; Rhombus; Deltoid; Teres; Quadratus; Splenius
  2. Size and General Configuration: Latissimus (broad); Longus; Brevis (short); Vastus (thick); Maximus; Minimus
  3. Fiber Direction: Rectus (up, down); Transversus (superior, anterior); Oblique (cleft through the body)
  4. Origin and Insertion (attachements): sternocleidomastoid (sternum, clavicle, mastoid); brachioradialis (arm, radius); caracobrachialis (carcoid of scapula, arm)
  5. General Location: intercostal (ribs); brachialis (arms); pectoralis; tibialis; Iliacus (hips); Femoris; Subscapularis (scapula)
  6. Action or Function: Flexor; Extensor; Abductor (opens); Adductor (closes); Pronator (faces posteriorly or inward); Supinator (faces anterioirly or outwards); Levator (brings up); Depressor (brings down)
  7. Number of Heads or Origins: Biceps (two); Triceps (three); Quadriceps (four)
19
Q

Name three antagonistic pairs and their functions.

A
  1. Biceps Brachii, bends arm at elbow // Triceps Brachii, extends arm at elbow
  2. Buccinator, draws mandible away from body // Masseter, brings mandible towards body
  3. Quadriceps Group, extends leg at knee // Hamstring Group, bends leg at knee
20
Q

How do contractions and vibrations work with muscles? What are the types of innervation? What are the steps of muscle contraction?

A

Skeletal, Cardiac have contractions; Visceral, Smooth have peristalsis motions (vibrations or wave-like motions)

–

Innervation: origin of an electrical impulse involuntary

muscles innervate from the ANS (autonomic nervous system); voluntary muscles innervate from the CNS (central nervous system)

–

  1. ANS/CNS innervation of 70+ mV occurs
  2. Mitochondria react to stimulus
  3. ATP is released
  4. Presynaptic Vesicles react to ATP
  5. ACH (acetylcholine) is released
  6. ACH moves across the synaptic gap (synapse)
  7. Polarity change from rest (positive in, negative out) to contraction (positive out, negative in)
21
Q

What are the characteristics of skeletal muscle? What is origin and insertion? Fast twitch and slow twitch?

A

attached to skeleton or bone with a process, tuberosity, or trochanter; only muscle with a tendon; voluntary and striated with protein bands; CNS innervation

–

Origin: closer or proximal to head; fixed or stationary

Insertion: farther or distal; moveable

Fast Twitch: quick contractions and fatigues; burst of energy or speed; developed first in the human body as barbies; “white meat” because of low amount of myoglobin

Slow Twitch: slow contractions and fatigue; endurance; “dark meat” because of high amount of myoglobin

*twitch ratio is genetically influenced

22
Q

What are the characteristics of cardiac muscle? What are the characteristics of visceral muscle?

A

Cardiac: involuntary, striated; ANS innervation; has syncytium gaps formed by crossing over matrix; has autorhythmicity (each cell has its own beat)

Visceral: involuntary, unstriated; ANS innervation; moves through peristalsis; found in internal organs and blood vessels

23
Q

What is nuerology? What are the types of neurons? What are convolutions and what are they made of?

A

study of the nervous system; brain as organ, nuerons as basic unit; divides into PNS, CNS, and ANS

–

amount of folds determine the intelligence or complexity of organisms

gyrus/gyri as top; sulcus/sulci as valley; cerebral spinal fluid found in sulci

–

  1. Unipolar: sensory; send; receptors of stimulus; afferent path; located in sensory organs
  2. Bipolar: motor; receive; typically efferent; located in glands or muscle
  3. Multipolar: mixed; interpret; located in CNS (brain interprets information that spinal cord receives)
24
Q

Define MYELIN and all the components that are associated with it. Define MENINGES and all the components associated with it.

A

Myelin: coats axon; the thicker it is, the faster the impulse travels; found in PNS and CNS

Nuerolemma Covering: used for regeneration

Nodes of Ranvier: dimples or valleys along the surface

Saltation: aka saltatory conduction; jumping of one node to the next

Schwann Cells: glial or support cells that use mitochondria to produce ATP for fatigued neurons

–

similar to myelin sheath but unable to regenerate; found only in CNS; has three layers of dura mater (outer), arachnoid (middle), and pia mater (inner)

25
Q

What are the six major cranial nerves? Are they sensory or motor? What are their functions?

A

OOFVVH - SSBSBM

Olfactory: sensory; smell

Optic: sensory; vision

Facial: both; facial muscles, salivary and lacrimal glands, two-thirds tongue sensation

Vestibulocochlear: sensory; balance and hearing

Vagus: both; visceral sensation, muscles of pharynx and larynx, major parasympathetic nerve

Hypoglossal: motor; muscles of the tongue

26
Q

HEMISPHERES

A
  1. Right Hemisphere: creative; associated with emotions, colors, pictures
  2. Left Hemisphere: calculative; associated wih organization, mathematics, logic
  3. Basal Ganglia: point where two hemispheres join together
  4. Thalamus: location of brain impulse crossover transfer
  5. Hypothalamus: controls all homeostatic functions
27
Q

SPINAL CORD ANATOMY, in relation to the Nervous System

A
  1. Fasiculus Gracilus: dorsal entry for impulse to go up
  2. Fasiculus Cuneatus: ventral exit for impulse to come down
  3. Dorsal Root: afferent path of impulse to brain
  4. Ventral Root: efferent path of impulse to body
28
Q

BROADMAN’S MAP OF BRAIN LOBES

A
  1. Frontal: emotions, feelings, opinion
  2. Temporal: speech, memory, hearing
  3. Parietal: sensory, motor
  4. Occipital: vision
  5. Cerebellum: balance, coordination, perception

Quadreminal Lobes: 1, 2, 3, 4

Drinking affects frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, cerebellum, midbrain (in that order)

29
Q

What is ANS? PNS? CNS?

A

Autonomic Nervous System; controls all automatic or involuntary action

Sympathetic: speeds up or increases production or functions of nervous system; eg. adrenaline

Parasympathetic: opposite of sympathetic; slows down or decreases nervous system

–

Peripheral Nervous System; controls responses to the side or perphery

Cranial Nerves: located under the surface of the brain; takes case of head, neck, and face; 12 pairs

Spinal Nerves: located on spinal cord; takes care of internal organs, arms, and legs; mirrored on either side but independent functions; 31 pairs

–

Central Nervous System; interprets all senses and voluntary actions; includes spinal cord and brain

Monosynaptic Reflex: aka unlearned or safety instinct; goes through only the spinal cord (sensory, mixed spinal, motor)

Polysynaptic Reflex: aka learned or reaction, goes through both spinal cord and brain (sensory, mixed spinal, mixed brain, mixed spinal, motor)

Babinksi: takes two to three years for brain to “talk” to spinal cord to reglate coordination; negative if uncoordinated, positive if coordinated

30
Q

Define teloreceptors, opthalmology, audiology, photons, and decibels. What are transducers and their forms within the eye and ear?

A

Teloreceptors: pickup information away from the body

Ophalmology: study of the eye for the function of vision

Audiology: study of the ear for the function of hearing and balance

Photons: light energy

Decibels: unit of sound waves

Transducers: convert information from one form to another; found in receptors; eye has photosensory cells, ear has organ of corti

31
Q

What does the OUTER EYE do and what is it composed of?

1, 2, 3

A

COLLECTS AND DIRECTS THE PHOTONS

  1. Cornea: 100% epithelial tissue; regenerates, protects pupil, is detachable
  2. Sclera: “white” of the eye; strong banded protein made of elastin and collagen
  3. Extrinsic Muscle: six outside the eye; used to move the eye
32
Q

What does the MIDDLE EYE do and what is it composed of?

4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

A

CONCENTRATES THE PHOTONS

  1. Lens: transparent tissue that bends the light that passes through
  2. Suspensory Ligament: connects lens to ciliary muscle
  3. Ciliary Muscle: adjusts lens to become thicker or thinner to focus on near or far objects
  4. Iris: colored part of eye; adjusts diameter of pupil
    8a. Acqeous Humor: liquid in front of the lens; 8b. Vitreous Humor: liquid behind the lens = help maintain eye shape
  5. Pupil: allows light to pass through
33
Q

What does the INNER EYE do and what is it composed of?

10, 11, 12, 13

A

INTERPRETS PHOTONS FOR VISION

  1. Retina: film for vision that goes along the inside of the sclera
  2. Fovea Centrale: center focus; dimple in back of eye
  3. Optic Disk: blind spot in eye because of no retinal covering
  4. Optic Nerve: takes information to occipital lobe for interpretation
34
Q

Define hyperopia, myopia, and how to correct them. Define emmetropia and visual acuity. Define photosensory cells. What is the difference between an optometrist and a opthalmologist?

A

Hyperopia: aka far sighedness; eyeball is too short; can be corrected with a bi-convex lense (A)

Myopia: aka near sightedness; eyeball is too elongated; can be corrected with a bi-concave lense (B)

Emmetropia: perfect vision at 20/20 (a person at 20 feet can see a letter 20 mm high)

Visual Acuity: the accuracy that an eye can see in an image; judged by the Snellen eye chart

–

found within the retina; convert photons into eletrical impulses

Rods: achromatic (black or white) vision

Cones: chromatic (color) vision; contains rhodopsin (purple protein) and primary colors of red (erythrolabe), green (chlorolabe), and blue (cyanolabe)

–

Optometrist: eye doctor

Opthalmologist: eye surgeon

35
Q

What does the OUTER EAR do and what is it composed of?

1, 2, 3

A

COLLECTS AND DIRECTS DECIBELS

  1. Pinna: 100% cartilage
  2. Channels: genetically influenced but typically has two layers; good hearing toward front and sides but not behind
  3. Auditory Canal: contains serum liquidproduced by serous epithelium
36
Q

What does the MIDDLE EAR do and what is it composed of?

4, 5, 6

A

VIBRATES AND AMPLIFIES DECIBELS

  1. Tympanic Membrane: aka ear drums; 100% epithelium; vibrates and amplifies incoming sound waves
  2. Pharynogeotympanic Tube: aka eustachian tube; balances pressure by connecting to mouth
  3. Ossicles: tiny bones in ear that vibrate to amplify sound waves;consist of malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup)
37
Q

What does the INNER EAR do and what is it comprised of?

7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12

A

INTERPRETS SOUND WAVES

  1. Oval Window: receives amplification from ossicles
  2. Semicircular Canal: balance; contains liquid; used for location and proprioception; three canals for three planes (transverse, sagittal, coronal)
  3. Cochlea: hearing; contains vestibulocochlear nerve
  4. Auditory Nerve: aka cochlear nerve; picks up information and sends it to the temporal lobe for interpretation
  5. Tectoral Membrane: bounces and strikes the organ of corti in response to sound; louder sounds mean bigger bounces
  6. Organ of Corti: transducer of the ear; converts decibels into brain impulses for auditory nerve
38
Q

ESSAY CHOICE:

Taking the fucntion of the spinal cord, explain what polysynaptic and monosynaptic reflex arc are.

A
  • spinal cord receives afferent impulses; sends out efferent impulses
  • monosynaptic is survival (eg. jerking hand away from a fire) and goes through only spinal
  • polysynaptic is learned (eg. playing tennis) and goes through spinal and brain; goes through fasiculus gracilis for afferent impulses and exits through fasiculus cuneatus for efferent impulses

Human Biology (12 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions