Midterm 2 Flashcards
Define osteology, basic unit, calcium, foramen, and foramina. What are the three areas of the human skeleton? What are the joints?
Osteology: study of the skeletal system; 200 + 6 bones (3 bones per ear that fall off after death)
Basic Unit: bone (as an organ) has osteocytis, or bone cells
Calcium: in all bones; oxidizes to a yellowish tint
Foramen: large opening; eg. bottom of skull
Foramina: smaller, closely joined openings used for ligaments, tendons, blood vessels, and nerves; eg. sacrem
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*act as three branches to one system
- Axial: “axis” of the body; acts as framework and protection of vital organs; includes the skull (brain), vertebrae and backbones (spinal cord), ribs (lungs and heart)
- Appendicular: “appendages” that function in movement; include limbs and girdles (pectoral for shoulder, pelvic for hip)
- Articulations: “articulate” or connect the other branches; include joints
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arthrology, study of joints; connect axial and appendicular portions of the body
Define ossification. What are the two types of ossification? What are sutures used for? What are the five types of sutures?
aka bone formation, or the process of bone hardening from cartilage; cartilage + blood (calcium) = bone
- Intramembranous: takes place immediately after birth; requires calcium to begin ossification over a quick period of three months; produces five types of sutures *exception: broken bones always rejoin in a serrated suture and will not re-break at that location
- Endochondral: occurs everywhere but the skull and over a long period of time (18-21 years); uses cartilage parts to allow for bone enlargement; bone grows from outside in; uses joints, not sutures to connect bone
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act as a joint in the skull; should never move after being formed
- Serrate: jagged
- Lamboidal: looped
- Gomphosis: actual teeth within jaws
- Dentate: teeth-like
- Squamosal: flat, almost straight
Define condyle, periosteum, ephiphysis, diaphysis, matrix, and the medullary canal.
BONE ANATOMY
Condyle: smooth rounded end; ball in “ball and socket” joint
Epicondyle: two smaller rounded heads; traditional bone endings
Periosteum: bright, white wrap of fibers around living bone; provides all blood/nourishment and allows for osmotic exchange
Epiphysis: growth ends of bone; location of endochondrial ossification
Diaphysis: shaft of the bone
Matrix: soft, cancellous (spongy) bone; houses red bone marrow
Medullary Canal: tubular hollow within compact bone; houses yellow bone marrow and acts as a storage for calcium and other deposits
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- spongy matrix (with red bone marrow)
- process
- compact bone
- blood vessel
- periosteum
- medullary canal (with yellow bone marrow)
- epiphysis (2)
- diaphysis
Define gingiva, crown, neck, root, maloclussion, pyrrhea, carie, oral, and buccal. What are dentitions? What are the two types of dentition?
Gingiva: gums
Crown: bone covered with enamel
Neck: naked bone; no enamel covering
Root: contains nerves
Maloclussion: bad or unaligned jaw; causes headaches
Pyrrhea: severe gingivitis caused by bacterial infestation
Carie: aka cavity; caused by bacteria that have eaten away at the enamel
Oral: opening or stoma
Buccal: includes everthing in mouth
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aka teeth, or the gomphosis joint within jaws
Deciduous: aka temporary or baby teeth; are cartilagenous with no bone or nerves; only 16
Permanent: 32 total, 16 per jaw (mandible. maxilla); 2-1-2-3 pattern for 2 pair of incisors, 1 pair of canines (cuspids), 2 pairs of premolars (bicuspids), 3 pairs of molars (tricuspids)
What is the bafological curve? What are the divisions of the bafological curve?
aka backbone or natural curve of the body; crawling as a baby allows for such alighnment, which is essential for healthy organ growth and function
in-out-in-out for cervical (neck), thorax (chest), abdomen (lower back), and pelvis (hips)
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all vertebraes are cushioned by dense cartilage, called invertebral disks
Cervical: C1-C7; characterized by dual lateral foramen to allow for blood vessels; allso has bifid split that aligns nerves
Thoracic: T1-T12; downward spinal process
Lumbar: L1-L5; large oval body ad hatchet shaped spinous process; heart shaped
Sacral: S1-S5; fused together through ossification, resulting in serrated sutures
Cocyx: typically comprised of 4 bones; aka tail bone; may lead to paralysis if damaged
What are the ribs and how is it characterized?
part of axial skeleton and protects lungs and heart
Sternum: comprised of three majors parts to form rib cage; head (manubrium), body (fundus), tail (xhyphoid process)
12 Paired Ribs: 7 true ribs (attached directly to sternum by ligaments/cartilage); 3 false ribs (attached to true ribs); 2 floating ribs (no attachment to sternum, but attached in the back to bafological curve)
AXIAL AND APPENDICULAR SKELETON
AXIAL
- cranium (skull)
- maxilla
- mandible
- sternum
- ribs
- vertebrae
- sacrum
APPENDICULAR
- clavicle
- scapula
- humerus
- ulna
- radius
- carpals
- phalanges
- metacarpals
- coxal bone
- femur
- patella
- tibia
- fibula
- tarsals
- metatarsals
- phalanges
PECTORAL GIRDLE
- clavicle (collar bone)
- scapula (shoulder blade)
- humerus (upper arm)
- ulna
- radius (larger epiphysis than ulna’s)
- carpals (wrist)
- metacarpals (hand)
- phalanges (finger)
PELVIC GIRDLE
- pubic symphysis
- femur (upper leg)
- patella (knee cap)
- tibia (larger epiphysis than fibula’s)
- fibula
- tarsals (ankle)
- metatarsals (foot)
- phalanges (toes)
PELVIC BONES
aka hip bones; comprised of ilium (yellow), ischium (red), and pubis (blue)
Symphysis Pubis: opening of pelvis; visiblein female childbirth
Acetabulum: pocket; coated with cartilage
SKULL BONES
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Occipital
- Temporal
- Zygomatic Arch
- Nasal
- Maxilla
- Mandible
What are the hand bones? How are joints classified? What are the two types of joints?
8 carpals (wrist), 5 metacarpals (hand), 14 phalanges (fingers)
thumb is known as “pollex” and made of two bones (proximal distal)
all other fingers have three bones (proximal, medial, distal)
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by movement
SYNARTHROSIS: non-moving; eg. gomphosis joints, sutures
AMPHIARTHROSIS: slightly-moving; eg. back, symphosis pores
DIATHROSIS: free-moving; eg. arms, legs, hands
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WITH CAVITY: filled with synovial fluid to absorb shock
WITHOUT CAVITY: has small pockets of liquid to cushion bone; aka bursae
Define myology, myoglobin, summation, fatigue, and dual function. What is the basic unit and fiber content of muscle? Define functional unit. What is the difference between a natural and unnatural twitch? What is ACH and ACH-esterase?
Myology: study of muscle
Myoglobin: blood-colored liquid protein
Summation: natural, continuous flow of ACH
Fatigue: lack of protein that causes a lack of ACH-esterase
Dual Function: of muscles; allows for movement and heat
Basic Unit: fibers
Fiber Content: 75% interstitial fluid; 20% protein; 3-6% basic salts (KNaCa)
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Agonist: primary or first mover
Antagonist: opposite action to agonist
Synergistic: help muscle; helps antagonist
Specialist: one action only
*antagonistic movements (agonist-antagonist pairs) are superficial or visible
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Natural Twitch: involuntary muscle contraction Unnatural
Twitch: aka tetanus; twitching caused by external stimulation
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ACH: acetylcholine; nuerotransmitter that causes polarity change in muscles
ACH-esterase: repolarizes everything to equilibrium and requires protein
Explain the following theories: membrane, action potential, sodium potassium, all or none, sliding filament.
Membrane: more sodium ions on outside than potassium ions inside; positive outside membrane, negative inside
Action Potential: resting potential of -70 mV; threshold requires 70 mV to contract; subthreshold is any stimulus that is less than 70 mV
Sodium Potassium Pump: SPM keeps positive sodium ions out, negative potassium ions in; electrical impulse allows SPM to “open” and polarity change occurs
All or None: fibers contract all the way or not at all
Sliding Filament: takes place at myoneural junction; filaments become depolarizers and slide across one another to come together; change of polarity causes shortening of muscle
MUSCLE ULTRASTRUCTUE
- Process
- Tendon
- Fundus (body)
- Bundle
- Sarcolemma
- Fiber
- Myofibril
- Filament
MYOFIBRIL ULTRASTRUCTURE
- Dark Bands: aka A-bands; thick filament of myosin
- Light Bands: aka J-bands; thin filament made of actin
- Sarcomere: aka Z-bands; location of contraction
- H-zone: takes in impulses via end knob
NUEROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
- Dendrite
- Cell Body; Soma
- Axon
- Myelin Sheath
- Telodendrils
- End Knob
- Mitochondria
- Pre-Synaptic Vesicles (release ACH)
- Conductive Gel (for transmitting electrical impulses)
- Synapse
- Receptors
How are muscles named?
- By Geometric Shape or Form: Trapezius; Rhombus; Deltoid; Teres; Quadratus; Splenius
- Size and General Configuration: Latissimus (broad); Longus; Brevis (short); Vastus (thick); Maximus; Minimus
- Fiber Direction: Rectus (up, down); Transversus (superior, anterior); Oblique (cleft through the body)
- Origin and Insertion (attachements): sternocleidomastoid (sternum, clavicle, mastoid); brachioradialis (arm, radius); caracobrachialis (carcoid of scapula, arm)
- General Location: intercostal (ribs); brachialis (arms); pectoralis; tibialis; Iliacus (hips); Femoris; Subscapularis (scapula)
- Action or Function: Flexor; Extensor; Abductor (opens); Adductor (closes); Pronator (faces posteriorly or inward); Supinator (faces anterioirly or outwards); Levator (brings up); Depressor (brings down)
- Number of Heads or Origins: Biceps (two); Triceps (three); Quadriceps (four)
Name three antagonistic pairs and their functions.
- Biceps Brachii, bends arm at elbow // Triceps Brachii, extends arm at elbow
- Buccinator, draws mandible away from body // Masseter, brings mandible towards body
- Quadriceps Group, extends leg at knee // Hamstring Group, bends leg at knee
How do contractions and vibrations work with muscles? What are the types of innervation? What are the steps of muscle contraction?
Skeletal, Cardiac have contractions; Visceral, Smooth have peristalsis motions (vibrations or wave-like motions)
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Innervation: origin of an electrical impulse involuntary
muscles innervate from the ANS (autonomic nervous system); voluntary muscles innervate from the CNS (central nervous system)
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- ANS/CNS innervation of 70+ mV occurs
- Mitochondria react to stimulus
- ATP is released
- Presynaptic Vesicles react to ATP
- ACH (acetylcholine) is released
- ACH moves across the synaptic gap (synapse)
- Polarity change from rest (positive in, negative out) to contraction (positive out, negative in)
What are the characteristics of skeletal muscle? What is origin and insertion? Fast twitch and slow twitch?
attached to skeleton or bone with a process, tuberosity, or trochanter; only muscle with a tendon; voluntary and striated with protein bands; CNS innervation
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Origin: closer or proximal to head; fixed or stationary
Insertion: farther or distal; moveable
Fast Twitch: quick contractions and fatigues; burst of energy or speed; developed first in the human body as barbies; “white meat” because of low amount of myoglobin
Slow Twitch: slow contractions and fatigue; endurance; “dark meat” because of high amount of myoglobin
*twitch ratio is genetically influenced
What are the characteristics of cardiac muscle? What are the characteristics of visceral muscle?
Cardiac: involuntary, striated; ANS innervation; has syncytium gaps formed by crossing over matrix; has autorhythmicity (each cell has its own beat)
Visceral: involuntary, unstriated; ANS innervation; moves through peristalsis; found in internal organs and blood vessels
What is nuerology? What are the types of neurons? What are convolutions and what are they made of?
study of the nervous system; brain as organ, nuerons as basic unit; divides into PNS, CNS, and ANS
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amount of folds determine the intelligence or complexity of organisms
gyrus/gyri as top; sulcus/sulci as valley; cerebral spinal fluid found in sulci
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- Unipolar: sensory; send; receptors of stimulus; afferent path; located in sensory organs
- Bipolar: motor; receive; typically efferent; located in glands or muscle
- Multipolar: mixed; interpret; located in CNS (brain interprets information that spinal cord receives)
Define MYELIN and all the components that are associated with it. Define MENINGES and all the components associated with it.
Myelin: coats axon; the thicker it is, the faster the impulse travels; found in PNS and CNS
Nuerolemma Covering: used for regeneration
Nodes of Ranvier: dimples or valleys along the surface
Saltation: aka saltatory conduction; jumping of one node to the next
Schwann Cells: glial or support cells that use mitochondria to produce ATP for fatigued neurons
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similar to myelin sheath but unable to regenerate; found only in CNS; has three layers of dura mater (outer), arachnoid (middle), and pia mater (inner)
What are the six major cranial nerves? Are they sensory or motor? What are their functions?
OOFVVH - SSBSBM
Olfactory: sensory; smell
Optic: sensory; vision
Facial: both; facial muscles, salivary and lacrimal glands, two-thirds tongue sensation
Vestibulocochlear: sensory; balance and hearing
Vagus: both; visceral sensation, muscles of pharynx and larynx, major parasympathetic nerve
Hypoglossal: motor; muscles of the tongue
HEMISPHERES
- Right Hemisphere: creative; associated with emotions, colors, pictures
- Left Hemisphere: calculative; associated wih organization, mathematics, logic
- Basal Ganglia: point where two hemispheres join together
- Thalamus: location of brain impulse crossover transfer
- Hypothalamus: controls all homeostatic functions
SPINAL CORD ANATOMY, in relation to the Nervous System
- Fasiculus Gracilus: dorsal entry for impulse to go up
- Fasiculus Cuneatus: ventral exit for impulse to come down
- Dorsal Root: afferent path of impulse to brain
- Ventral Root: efferent path of impulse to body
BROADMAN’S MAP OF BRAIN LOBES
- Frontal: emotions, feelings, opinion
- Temporal: speech, memory, hearing
- Parietal: sensory, motor
- Occipital: vision
- Cerebellum: balance, coordination, perception
Quadreminal Lobes: 1, 2, 3, 4
Drinking affects frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, cerebellum, midbrain (in that order)
What is ANS? PNS? CNS?
Autonomic Nervous System; controls all automatic or involuntary action
Sympathetic: speeds up or increases production or functions of nervous system; eg. adrenaline
Parasympathetic: opposite of sympathetic; slows down or decreases nervous system
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Peripheral Nervous System; controls responses to the side or perphery
Cranial Nerves: located under the surface of the brain; takes case of head, neck, and face; 12 pairs
Spinal Nerves: located on spinal cord; takes care of internal organs, arms, and legs; mirrored on either side but independent functions; 31 pairs
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Central Nervous System; interprets all senses and voluntary actions; includes spinal cord and brain
Monosynaptic Reflex: aka unlearned or safety instinct; goes through only the spinal cord (sensory, mixed spinal, motor)
Polysynaptic Reflex: aka learned or reaction, goes through both spinal cord and brain (sensory, mixed spinal, mixed brain, mixed spinal, motor)
Babinksi: takes two to three years for brain to “talk” to spinal cord to reglate coordination; negative if uncoordinated, positive if coordinated
Define teloreceptors, opthalmology, audiology, photons, and decibels. What are transducers and their forms within the eye and ear?
Teloreceptors: pickup information away from the body
Ophalmology: study of the eye for the function of vision
Audiology: study of the ear for the function of hearing and balance
Photons: light energy
Decibels: unit of sound waves
Transducers: convert information from one form to another; found in receptors; eye has photosensory cells, ear has organ of corti
What does the OUTER EYE do and what is it composed of?
1, 2, 3
COLLECTS AND DIRECTS THE PHOTONS
- Cornea: 100% epithelial tissue; regenerates, protects pupil, is detachable
- Sclera: “white” of the eye; strong banded protein made of elastin and collagen
- Extrinsic Muscle: six outside the eye; used to move the eye
What does the MIDDLE EYE do and what is it composed of?
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
CONCENTRATES THE PHOTONS
- Lens: transparent tissue that bends the light that passes through
- Suspensory Ligament: connects lens to ciliary muscle
- Ciliary Muscle: adjusts lens to become thicker or thinner to focus on near or far objects
- Iris: colored part of eye; adjusts diameter of pupil
8a. Acqeous Humor: liquid in front of the lens; 8b. Vitreous Humor: liquid behind the lens = help maintain eye shape - Pupil: allows light to pass through
What does the INNER EYE do and what is it composed of?
10, 11, 12, 13
INTERPRETS PHOTONS FOR VISION
- Retina: film for vision that goes along the inside of the sclera
- Fovea Centrale: center focus; dimple in back of eye
- Optic Disk: blind spot in eye because of no retinal covering
- Optic Nerve: takes information to occipital lobe for interpretation
Define hyperopia, myopia, and how to correct them. Define emmetropia and visual acuity. Define photosensory cells. What is the difference between an optometrist and a opthalmologist?
Hyperopia: aka far sighedness; eyeball is too short; can be corrected with a bi-convex lense (A)
Myopia: aka near sightedness; eyeball is too elongated; can be corrected with a bi-concave lense (B)
Emmetropia: perfect vision at 20/20 (a person at 20 feet can see a letter 20 mm high)
Visual Acuity: the accuracy that an eye can see in an image; judged by the Snellen eye chart
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found within the retina; convert photons into eletrical impulses
Rods: achromatic (black or white) vision
Cones: chromatic (color) vision; contains rhodopsin (purple protein) and primary colors of red (erythrolabe), green (chlorolabe), and blue (cyanolabe)
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Optometrist: eye doctor
Opthalmologist: eye surgeon
What does the OUTER EAR do and what is it composed of?
1, 2, 3
COLLECTS AND DIRECTS DECIBELS
- Pinna: 100% cartilage
- Channels: genetically influenced but typically has two layers; good hearing toward front and sides but not behind
- Auditory Canal: contains serum liquidproduced by serous epithelium
What does the MIDDLE EAR do and what is it composed of?
4, 5, 6
VIBRATES AND AMPLIFIES DECIBELS
- Tympanic Membrane: aka ear drums; 100% epithelium; vibrates and amplifies incoming sound waves
- Pharynogeotympanic Tube: aka eustachian tube; balances pressure by connecting to mouth
- Ossicles: tiny bones in ear that vibrate to amplify sound waves;consist of malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup)
What does the INNER EAR do and what is it comprised of?
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
INTERPRETS SOUND WAVES
- Oval Window: receives amplification from ossicles
- Semicircular Canal: balance; contains liquid; used for location and proprioception; three canals for three planes (transverse, sagittal, coronal)
- Cochlea: hearing; contains vestibulocochlear nerve
- Auditory Nerve: aka cochlear nerve; picks up information and sends it to the temporal lobe for interpretation
- Tectoral Membrane: bounces and strikes the organ of corti in response to sound; louder sounds mean bigger bounces
- Organ of Corti: transducer of the ear; converts decibels into brain impulses for auditory nerve
ESSAY CHOICE:
Taking the fucntion of the spinal cord, explain what polysynaptic and monosynaptic reflex arc are.
- spinal cord receives afferent impulses; sends out efferent impulses
- monosynaptic is survival (eg. jerking hand away from a fire) and goes through only spinal
- polysynaptic is learned (eg. playing tennis) and goes through spinal and brain; goes through fasiculus gracilis for afferent impulses and exits through fasiculus cuneatus for efferent impulses
