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Human Biology > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Define biology, physiology, pathology, anatomy, cytology, histology, and microscopy.

A

Biology: study of living organisms

Physiology: study of structure or parts

Pathology: study of diseases or pathogens

Anatomy: structure or parts

Cytology: study of cells

Histology: study of tissues

Microscopy: studying with a microscope

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2
Q

Define autopsy, biopsy, benign, malignant, medial, lateral, proximal, and distal.

A

Biopsy: test on living tissue

Autopsy: test on dead tissue

Benign: good, harmless

Malignant: bad, harmful

Medial: towards the middle of the body

Lateral: towards the outside or sides of the body

Proximal: closer to the center of the body

Distal: closer to the ends of the body

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3
Q

Define metabolism and cell inclusions.

A

Metabolism: sum of all organelle functions of a eukaryotic cell

Cell Inclusions: non-living entities that assist organelles in their functions

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4
Q

Define homeostasis.

A

internal steady state, requiring water, salt, sugar, nutrients, and enzymes; controlled by hypothalamus, regulated by liver; humans fluctuate about norm on a daily basis (above norm is hyper-, below is hypo-)

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5
Q

Define number 3.

A

3 germ layers that form body structures; embryonic and epithelial; ectoderm (outside), mesoderm (middle), endoderm (inside)

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6
Q

Define interstitial fluid.

A

liquid between cells; every liquid in the body is modified interstitial fluid; “glues” or binds our cells; makes up 15% of our total weight

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7
Q

Define osmotic exchange.

A

exchange between cells, using interstitial fluid as a mediator; exchange good, get rid of bad

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8
Q

What are the three planes of the body?

A

Sagittal: separates right from left sides

Coronal, aka Frontal: separates anterior from interior; divides front and back

Transverse: separates superior from interior; divides top and bottom

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9
Q

What two cavities are there in the body? What are the advantages?

A

Anterior, aka Ventral (divided by diaphragm)

Posterior, aka Dorsal

allows for organogenesis (formation of organs) and complex organisms

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10
Q

What is in the ventral body cavity? The dorsal?

A

VENTRAL –> Thoracic: contains pleural cavity (lung), superior mediastinum, and pericardial within mediastinum (heart)
Abdominal: contains digestive viscera
Pelvic: contains bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
*abdominopelvic refers to the abdominal and pelvic cavities

DORSAL --\> Cranial cavity (brain)
Vertebral cavity (spinal cord)
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11
Q

What is the scientific method?

A

six basic, universal step

  1. Define the problem; single concern; question form
  2. Collection of Data; facts, stats, observations, etc.
  3. Forming a Hypothesis; attempt to answer 1 based on data collected from 2; variable always stated
  4. Experimentation; tests you hypothesis; two steps (control and variable)
  5. Second Data Collection; measurements of changing variable
  6. Conclusion; in/validates hypothesis based on data collected in 5

*show correlation between problem/hypothesis/experiment

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12
Q

What is the anatomic position?

A

standing upright facing forward, feet aligned but seperated, arms hanging at the sides with palms facing forward and thumbs out

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13
Q

What are the four levels of organization? What are the four basic elements of living organisms? What are the next four in human beings?

A
  1. Cells; basic unit, countless types
  2. Tissues; made of cells, four types
  3. Organs; made of tissue
  4. System; made of organs

HONC; hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon
KCaNaP; potassium, calcium, sodium, phosphorus
*KCaNa are basic salts

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14
Q

What are the three macromolecules?

A

visible to the naked eye

Proteins: 20 kinds of amino acids

Carbohydrates: saccharides of sugars or starches (mono- not sweet; di- slightly sweet, poly- very sweet)

Lipids: fatty acids, oils, glycerol

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15
Q

Define a prokaroyic and eukaryotic cell.

A

Pro-: primitive cells that lack a nucleus, organelles, or both (both means a true pro-cell); typically parasitic; eg. bacteria or blood cells

Eu-: true cells that exist in complex organisms and are independent because of metabolic capabilities; requires nucleus, cytoplasm with organelles, plasma membrane;
75% interstitial fluid, 20% protein, 3-6% salts (KCaNa); eg. skin cells or liver cells

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16
Q

Name all 12 organelles and their functions within a eukaryotic cell.

A

Ribosomes: produce proteins

Golgi Bodies, Golgi Apparatus: packages proteins together

Lysosomes: contain enzymes; act as the cell’s digestive system

Vacuoles: storage of water, food, or waste

Mitochondria: perform respiration; liberates ATP (liquid cell energy)

Cell Plasma Membrane: selectively allows materials to go in and out of the cell

Nuclear Membrane: controls passage in and out of the nucleus

Nucleus: controls all organelle functions with DNA

Nucleolus: assist in cell division

Chromatin Material, aka Plasmids: composed of unseen DNA and chromosomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum: increases surface area of cell; rough and smooth

Centrioles, aka Centrosomes: function in cell division

17
Q

What is passive transport? What are the three types of passive transport? What is active transport? What are the two types of active transport? What is the rate of molecular movement dependent on?

A

PT requires no energy.

  1. Simple diffusion: movement from a high to low concentration
  2. Facilitated diffusion: requires assistance to diffuse
  3. Osmosis: diffusion of liquid through SPM

AT requires energy (ATP) to transport molecules against a gradient or to be moved through the pores of SPM.

  1. Exocytosis: move out of the cell
  2. Endocytosis: take into the cell (phagocytosis for solids, pinocytosis for liquids)
  3. Temperature: higher temperature means higher energy
  4. Gradient: high to low concentration
  5. Size of molecules
  6. Pressure
18
Q

What is toxicity? What are the three types of tonicity?

A

Tonicity is the solution/interstitial fluid in which a cell soaks.

  1. Hypertonic: more water in cell than out; transport goes in to out; can lead to plasmolysis or cytoplasm destruction
  2. Hypotonic: more water out of cell than in; transport goes out to in the cell; can cytolysis or cell destruction
  3. Isotonic: equal water concentration in and out of cell
19
Q

What are the five steps of metabolism?

A
  1. Ingestion
  2. Catabolism; break down
  3. Transport, Energy Cycle; ATP (unstable, very reactive) changed into ADP when used; some energy is lost due to heat, active transport, or the union of amino acids chains
  4. Anabolism; build up
  5. Proteins and Waste formed; excretion for liquids, egestion for solids
20
Q

Define respiration. What are the two types of respiration?

A

Respiration, in general, is the liberation of ATP. There are two types: anaerobic and aerobic.

ANAERO: without oxygen; primitive, occurring 1% of the time; aka fermentation; yields 2 ATP per glycogen
if in plants: alcoholic fermentation (ethyl alcohol)
if in animals: lactic acid fermentation (oxygen debt if out of shape)

AERO: uses or requires oxygen; modern, occurring 99% of the time; aka oxidation; yields 38 ATP per glycogen

obligated: can only breath aerobically (eg. bacteria)
facilitated: aerobic but hybrid (eg. humans)

21
Q

What is a nucleotide? Identify the nitrogen bases of DNA and RNA. How do the bonds go?

A

A nucleotide makes up the strands of DNA and RNA.
made up of a ribose sugar (R), a phosphate (P), and a nitrogen base (B)
Pentagon (B), Square (R), Bottom Square (P)

purines: adenine, guanine
pyrimidines: cytosine, thymine, uracil
In DNA: A x T, C x G
In RNA: A to U, T to A, C x G

22
Q

Define DNA. Define RNA. What are four differences between DNA and RNA?

A

DNA: deoxyribose nucleic acid
carries your genes on lines on chromosomes; 23 pairs (22 autosome, controlling all traits but sexual; 1 sex chromosome, XX if girl and XY if boy)
has triple codons of nitrogenous bases, linked by weak hydrogen bonds
double helix model from Watson/Crick

RNA: three forms: mRNA (messenger), rRNA (ribosome), tRNA (transfer)
tRNA has anticodon prongs atop the RNA, with a corresponding amino acid attached at the bottom.

  1. double stranded vs. single stranded
  2. remains in nucleus vs. can leave nucleus
  3. no oxygen vs. oxygen
  4. template vs. carrier
23
Q

Describe the steps of protein synthesis.

A
  1. Replication: copy of DNA carried as mRNA out of the nucleus
  2. Transcription: mRNA attaches to a ribosome, becoming rRNA; anticodons of tRNA attach to rRNA, creating an amino acid chain
  3. Translation: tRNA goes to the Golgi bodies and become either structural proteins (amino acids) or enzymes
24
Q

What is the cell life cycle?

A

85% in resting phase, aka G phase; doing metabolic functios, but not reproducing

15% in active phase, aka S phase; doing reproduction or division; replaces aged cells; mitosis or meiosis

25
Q

Describe the phases of mitosis.

A

yields 2 diploid cells; asxual reproduction; occurs in somatic cells (all but sex cells)

  1. Interphase: 85% of the time; DNA duplicates, going from 23 to 46 pairs
  2. Prophase: nucleus now breaks apart; chromosomes tetrads visible
  3. Metaphase: chromosomes line up along the equator; fibers appear and centrioles are polarized
  4. Anaphase: organization sets up for division; chromosomes pulled to either sides
  5. Telophase: two cells stretch and divide into new cells; chromosomes no longer visible
26
Q

Describe the stages of meiosis.

A

sexual, only in female ovaries and make testes; yields 4 haploid cells
Meiotic 1: regular mitosis EXCEPT crossover (duplicates wrap around and exchange some information between the two) occurs; leads to genetic variation
Meiotic 2: regular mitosis EXCEPT no interphase, therefore no duplication; leads to reduction of chromosomes
Maturation: in males, sperm; in females, 3 polar bodies die and 1 egg survives

27
Q

Define tissues. What are the 4 types?

A

group of similar cells (structure and number of organelles) and similar function; means “weave” and has matrix of crossover design

FOUR TYPES: connective (connects), epithelial (covers), muscle (movement), nervous (transmits); all four found in an organ

28
Q

Define muscle tissue.

A

only tissue that can move (besides sperm)

has dual function to produce movement and heat (eg. shivering and goosebumps to create heat and reduce heat loss)

29
Q

Define afferent, efferent, cell specialization, denaturing, and cytokinesis.

A

Afferent: to brain, from body

Efferent: to body, from brain

Cell Specialization: depending on the number of organellles, a cell will perform a specific function

Denaturing: prepares for protein synthesis; uses the helicase enzyme group to break the weak hydrogen bonds of DNA

Cytokinesis: replication and division of organelles and cytoplasm during cell reproduction

30
Q

Define integumentary. What are the three degrees of burns?

A

skin is the largest organ in the body and covers us

THREE BASIC AREAS:

  1. Epidermis: upper layer, 100% epithelial (typically squamous) and of seven layers
  2. Dermis: middle portion; contains glands (oil, fat), cartilage, etc.
  3. Hypo-dermis: innermost layer; growth and nerve layers

1st: damage to epidermis; grows back easily
2nd: damage to epidermis and dermis; grows back with assistance
3rd: damage all the way to hypodermis; requires treatment (eg. skin grafts) to grow back

31
Q

Define nerve, aka neural, tissue.

A

only tissue/cell that can conduct or carry an electrical impulse

THREE TYPES: motor (sends; in muscles and glands), sensory/receptor (receives; in sense organs), mixed (interprets; in brain and spinal cord)
*senses recorded by brain yet brain does not feel direct touch bc no sensory neurons are there

32
Q

Define connective tissue.

A

protects, pads, or connects body areas; may also be used as storage

contains bright, white fibers of elastin (flexibility) and/or collagen (strength)

33
Q

Define epithelial tissue.

A

epi- if visible from outside; endo- if not

TRAITS: lining tissue; only tissue that is close together; little interstitial fluid; dense; has glands

34
Q

What are the classifications of the four types of tissue?

A

EPITHELIAL: by shape

  1. Squamous: flat, squashed, usually layered; on outside
  2. Cuboidal: cubed, large nuclei; in organs
  3. Columnar: column or rectangular; in intestines
  4. Ciliated Columnar: columnar with “hair” that removes dust or waste; in respiratory tract

CONNECTIVE: by fibers
1. Ligament: connects bone to bone
2. Tendon: connects muscle to bone
3. Adipose: fat (as in fatty acid and glycerol); energy storage of glycogen; clear, bulbous with oil, polarized nucleus
4. Cartilage: acts as padding between two bones; no fiber; triangular cells, paired (parietal), lots of interstitial fluid to act as cushioning, connected by fibers {1. Hyaline: low stress and strength; no fiber – 2. Elastic, aka Areolar: medium stress and strength; some fiber – 3. Dense: tough jobs and high strength; very fibrous
*all found in ear}

NERVE: by number of roads to nucleus

  1. Unipolar: one road to nucleus; in sense organs
  2. Bipolar: two roads; typically one way, *if impulses collide, it can lead to erratic behavior
  3. Multipolar: many roads; in brain and spinal cord

MUSCLE: by location; 660+ types

  1. Skeletal: striated, involuntary; on skeleton; has protein bands and stripes; is organized and parallel
  2. Cardiac: striated, involuntary; in heart; each cell beats with autorhythmicity, striped with crossing over pattern, has syncytium gap
  3. Smooth, aka Visceral: not striated, involuntary; in internal organs and blood vessels; free-moving nuclei with fusiform shape
35
Q

ESSAY QUESTION: Protein Synthesis

3 steps and structure of DNA/RNA

importance

results of each step

A

The formation of proteins is a three step process that allows the cell to code for one of over 4000 proteins possible. DNA is the template and is unable to leave the nucleus; therefore, RNA is used in protein synthesis as a carrier of a template copy that can leave the cell.

To prepare for protein synthesis, the helicase enzyme group breaks the weak hydrogen bonds of the DNA strands, allowing replication to occur. Replication is the first step of protein synthesis and results in a copy of the DNA in the form of messenger RNA (mRNA), which will leave the nucleus and head towards a ribosome.

Once at the ribosome, mRNA becomes ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Plasmids, or triplet anti-codons that float in the cytoplasm, attach themselves to corresponding codons. These floating anti-codons also bring along an amino acid. This step, known as Transciption, produces transfer RNA (tRNA) and is a long string of amino acids.

The tRNA would then travel to the Golgi bodies. It is here that the tRNA is interpreted and used to produce a certain protein, either a strucutal protein or an enzyme. In the step of Translation, the amino acids are converted by the Golgi bodies into a protein that the cell needs.

The protein synthesis is complete!

36
Q

What are the twelve parts of a microscope?

A

Body tube
Ocular lens
Objective lens
Iris diaphragm knob
Stage
Stage clips
Base
Nosepiece
Arm
Light
Coarse adjustment
Fine adjustment

Human Biology (12 decks)

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