What is respiration?
system of osmotic exchange; lungs as organ, alveoli as basic unit; exchange food for waste and oxygen for carbon dioxide; regulates metabolism through catabolic and anabolic rates
Tidal Volume: normal inhale/exhale cycle; about 16 cycles per minute
What makes up the lungs?
Lobes: three right, two left; proximal, medial, distal
Trachea: aka windpipe; lined with cilia to filter air
Cricoid Rings: bands of collagen and elastin; keep airway open
Glottis: opening of trachea
Epiglottis: flap that closes to direct food to esophagus; prevents choking
Bronchii: point where trachea splits
Bronchiole: attachment of bronchii to lungs
Bronchiole Tubes: small divisions of bronchiole
Alveoli: location of osmotic exchange; ends of bronchiole tubes; have capillary stripes
Identify the ten arteries. Identify nine veins.
ARTERIES
- Common Carotids: to head and brain
- Right Axillary: vertebral to upper neck and base of brain
- Arch of Aorta: largest vessel in the body
- Left Axillary: throughout armpit region
- Left Brachial: to upper arm
- Left Renal: to kidney
- Right Radial: on radius side of forearm
- Right Ulna: on ulna side of forearm
- Right Femoral: down the leg towards the femur
- Deep Femoral: down the leg towards the femur
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VEINS
- Right Internal Jugular: from head and brain
- Right External Jugular: from head and brain
- Right Axillary: through armpit region
- Right Brachial: from upper arm
- Right Radial: from radial side of the forearm
- Right Ulna: from ulna side of the forearm
- Superior Vena Cava
- Inferioir Vena Cava
- Left Femoral: from down the leg towards the femur
What is the cardiac cycle? What is an EKG or ECG?
CYCLE
- Atria contracts (systole)
- Atria relaxes (diastole)
REST
- Ventricles contracts (systole)
- Ventricles relaxes (diastole)
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EKG, ECG
Electrocardiogram: measurement of the heart
P: wave of innervation
Q: atrial systole
R: atrial diastole; weakest point of contraction
S: ventricular systole; strongest point of contraction
T: ventricular diastole
How does the heart conduct electricity?
via nodes, electrical cell bundles or modified myofibrils
Eletrocardiophysiology: heart electricity
Vagus: produces ANS innervation to the heart; heart dies without it; comes behind the heart to attach to the SA node
- SA Node: sinoartial node; controls the pace of the heart
- AV Node: atrioventricular; causes heart contraction
- Bundle of HIS: conducts impulse from nodes to fibers
- Perkinje System: spread impulse throughout heart via fibers
What is the heart? What are the vessels of the heart? What are the valves of the heart? How does the heart contract?
four chambered muscular pump; located about T4 to T8 vertebrae
- Atria: aka auricle; upper chambers that fill with blood (L/R)
- Ventricle: lower chambers that pump blood (L/R)
- Apex: bottom tip of the heart; strongest pump
- Pericardial Sac: aka pericardium; full of pericardial liquid
- Pulmonary Artery: delivers blood to the lungs
- Aorta: largest vessel in the body with a one inch diameter
- Vena Cava: brings blood from body to heart (S/I)
- Pulmonary Vessels: delivers blood from lungs to heart
- Heart Valves: aka mitral valves; should beat at the same time; closing creates “lub” of heartbeat; moves down
- Vessel Valves: aka semi-lunar valves; closing creates “DUB” of heartbeat; moves up
- Septum: tissue that divides heart into left and right; left is oxygenated, right is deoxygenated; sides must remain seperate
- Chordae Tendinae: only in mitral valces; opens bicuspid and tricuspid valves using collagen or elastin fibers
- Papillary Muscle: attaches chordae tendinae to heart walls; contraction causes opening of mitral valves
What are the cardial layers? What are the tunica layers?
CARDIAL
Epicardium: outer; connects heart to pericardium
Myocardium: middle; muscle or “meat” of the heart
Endocardium: inner; prevents fluid leakage
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layers that make up blood vessels; designed to keep blood inside of vessels
- Externa: aka avertintia; outer layer, made of epithelium
- Media: middle layer; visceral muscle, cartilage, fat
- Interna: aka intima; inner layer, made of epithelium
What is blood? What are red blood cells? What are white blood cells? What are platelets?
BLOOD
liquid transport system; 55% plasma, 45% blood cells
Plasma: 92% interstitial fluid, 3-6% salt; contains antibodies (fight diseases), antigens (teach antibodies), and serum
Blood Cells: aka corpuscles; prokaryotic cells
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RED
aka erythrocytes; 5 mill RBCs per mc^3 (drop); three to four month life span; true prokaryotes
Bi-concave structure: pockets allow binding of oxygen and carbon dioxide via hemoglobin
Elastic: able to bend around sharp junctions without rupturing
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WHITE
aka leukocytes; 5 k WBCs per mc^3 (drop); never die
Macrophages: agranulocytes (no granules), morphonuclear; fight long term diseases with monocytes and lymphocytes
Phagocytes: granulocytes (granules), polymorphonuclear; control pH and fight short term diseases with eosinophils (acid), basophils (basic), neutrophils (neutral, 71% of the time)
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PLATELETS
aka thrombocytes; non-cellular sticks of thrombin; responsible for blood clotting (hemostasis)
- Spasm and Constriction: notifies brain of injury while platelets form a temporary plug
- Fiber Matrix: brain sends elastin, collagen, and fibrin to solidify plug into a sturdy scab
- Heal and Seal: mitosis of skin cells
What are the five adult pathways of blood? What is the fetal pathway?
ADULT
Greater, Systemic: to entire body
Lesser, Pulmonary: to lungs
Coronary, Heart: within heart
CSF, Cerebral Spinal Fluid: to brain
Hepatic, Portal: to internal organs
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FETAL
bypasses lungs with three shunts in order to conserve energy; shunts change after umbilical cord is cut
- Foramen Ovale: in heart; transfer between atriums; turns into ligament fossa ovalis
- Ductus Arterioris: in vessels; transfer between aorta and pulmonary artery; turns into ligament ligamentus arterioris
- Umbilicus: aka umbilical cord; transfer between mother and fetus via placenta; turns into “afterbirth”
Define agglutination, hematology, hemopoeisis, milking action, angiology, cardiology, cardiovascular system. What are the three types of blood vessels? What are four conditions or diseases of the cardiovascular system?
Agglutination: blood that does not mix
Hematology: study of blood; iron (heme-) carriers
Hemopoeisis: blood production in liver, spleen, and bone marrow
Milking Action: muscle contraction that pushes against the veins and “milks” the blood up; used to prevent fainting on a warm day
Angiology: study of blood vessels
Cardiology: study of the heart
Cardiovascular System: circulation of blood from heart through vessels used for transport or exchange of materials through osmotic exchange
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BLOOD VESSELS
Arteries: thick, three layers, red, efferent, carry oxygenated blood, has pulse, deeper in the body, contains sphincter valve
Capillaries: connect veins and arteries; location of osmotic exchange; microscopic; make up 90% of cuts
Veins: thin, one to three layers, blue, afferent, carry deoxygenated blood, no pulse, closer to the surface, has smooth muscle valves
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DISEASES
Artherosclerosis: fat inside vessel; solved with stent or bypass
Artherostenosis: fat outside vessel; solved with bypass or angioplasty
Arteriosclerosis: hardened fat; affects media layer
Annuerism: swelling or ballooning due to weak walls of a vessel
What is the digestive system? What is symbiosis? What are the three types of symbiosis?
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
aka alimentary canal; stomach as organ, villi as basic unit; about 30 feet long with two openings (mouth/stomadeum, anus/proctadeum); includes mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
Gut Wall: made of serosa (outer; 100% epithelium). muscle (visceral, ANS, peristalsis), mucus (sticky), sub-mucus (innermost; wavy)
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SYMBIOSIS
two different organisms that live together
- Commensalism: one benefits; the other is unharmed
- Mutual: both benefit
- Parasitic: one benefits; the other is harmed
Define mastication, deglutination, distension, bolus, chyme, and sphincter.
Mastication: to chew
Deglutination: to swallow
Distension: to expand
Bolus: semi-digested food within the mouth
Chyme: semi-digested food within the stomach
Spincter: strong muscular valve of ANS innervation
What is the mouth?
aka stomadeum, buccal/oral cavity; 5% of total digestion, breaks down carbohydrates into saccharides
MECHANICAL: teeth for chewing; tongue, glossal, lingual for mixing food bits and saliva
CHEMICAL: salivary glands that produce enzymes
- Parotid: squirts; profuces ptaylin (monosaccharide)
- Tongue
- Sub-lingual: under tongue; produces lipase (lipid)
- Sub-mandibular: under jaw; produces amylase (dominant; polysaccharides; breaks down into glucose, level should be under 100 parts per million; stored as glycogen in liver)
- Pharynx: back of mouth; beginning of esophagus
What is the esophagus? What is the stomach?
ESOPHAGUS
connects pharynx to stomach; 0% digestion; about one foot long, but tri-innervated (CNS, control - ANS/CNS, some control - ANS, no control)
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STOMACH
use mainly as food resevoir; 100% visceral muscle; about one gallon in volume; 5% of total digestion, breaks down proteins into proteins
Deamination: proper digestion of proteins in the stomach; produce creatinine and urea; dairy is dissolved by renin; meat is dissolved by pepsin; fats are dissolved by lactase
Omentum: lesser/superioir, greater/inferior; keep shape of stomach
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- Esophagus
- Cardiac Sphincter: located at the end of the esophagus, right above the stomach; regulates amount of food that enters stomach
- Cardid
- Rugae: muscular folds of the stomach; lined with cells; pit under; parietal epithelial (produce gastrin) cells; chief cells (produce hypochloric acid of a pH 2-3)
- Fundus
- Pylorus: has villi
- Pyloric Sphincter: regulates the amount of food that enters the small intestine
What is the small intestine? What is the large intestine?
SMALL
90% of total digestion; cotains all enzymes and decreasing amount of villi; divided into duodenum (most active), jejunum (somewhat active), and ileum (least active)
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LARGE
aka colon; 0% of total digestion; reabsorbs salt and water
Haustra: box-like shape of the solon; contains undigested food and bacteria (acidophalus and e. coli)
Formation of Feces: probiotic bacteria mis fibers and undigested food together to make a solid mass
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- Ileocecal Sphincter: regulates amount of food that enters the large intestine
- Appendix: non-functional in humans
- Cecum: indicates beginning of large intestine
- Ascending Colon
- Transverse Colon
- Descending Colon
- Sigmoid: s-shaped structure near end of colon
- Rectum: pocket before the anal sphincter
- Anal Sphincter: regulated smount of waste that leaves the body
What are the theories of genetics? What are punnet squares? Define diploid, haploid, autosomes, sex chromosomes, species traits, and individual traits.
THEORIES
approximately 10k genes make up who we are
First Hypothesis: Factors influenced by DNA (genes)
Second Hypothesis: dominant and recessive gametes
Third Hypothesis: segregation allows for genetic variation
Law of Independent Assortment: combination of alleles
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PUNNETT
used to determine traits of offspring (F) from parent (P) traits
Monohybrid Cross: one trait only
Dihybrid Cross: two traits
Genotype: genetic makeup; can be homologous dominant, heterozygous, or homologous recessive
Phenotype: physical makeup
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Diploid: full set of chromosomes
Haploid: half set of chromosomes
Autosomes: 22 pairs in humans; determine all traits but sex
Sex Chromosome: 1 pair in humans; determines only sex trait
Species Trait: differentiates one species from another
Individual Traits: differentiates individuals within a species
Define urology and urine.
Urology: study of excretion or removal of liquid waste; organ is kidney, basic unit is nephron
Urine: liquid waste, typically contains water, nitrogenous waste (from digestion), glucose (< 100 ppm), salt, amino acids (creatine and urea from deamination)
What is the kidney? What is a nephron?
KIDNEY
area specific
- Cortex: outer; location of nephrons
- Medulla: contains pyramids to collect urine from cortex via greater/major calyx through lesser/minor calyx
- Hilum: admits the renal artery, vein, ureter, and nerves
- Pelvis: contain renal vein (blood out, urine in) and renal artery (blood in, urine out)
- Ureter: connects kidney to bladder (100% visceral muscle)
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NEPHRON
four part filtration unit
- Glomerulus: ball of capillaries; surrounded by an epithelial layer (Bowman’s Capsule)
- Proximal Convoluted Tubules: absorbs 80% of filtrate and nutrients
- Loop of Henle: absorbs excess water
- Distal Convoluted Tubles: typically impermeable to water
Define reproduction, sexual hormones, and fertilization.
REPRODUCTION
girl is XX; organ is ovary; basic unit is ovum
boy is XY; organ is testes; basic unit is sperm
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HORMONES
found in both sexes; determine secondary sex traits
Testosterone: dominant in males
Estrogen, Progesterone: dominant in females
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FERTILIZATION
aka implantation; attachment of fertilized ova to luteal lining; causes four extra embryonic membranes to provideand protect the fertilized egg
- Placenta: connection between mother and child
- Choroin: protective buffer; flowery shape
- Amion: protective sac around baby; contains amniotic fluid, which acts as a shock absorber
- Allantois: nonexistent in humans; “yolk” of the egg; collects waste and provides nourishment via allantois tube/duct
What are the parallel structures of reproduction?
structures of a girl and boy are same in size, original location, and function
Function of Testes and Ovaries: create sex cells, secrete sexual hormones, possess secondary traits
- Ovary - Testes
- Clitoris - Penis
- Labia - Scrotal Sac (temperature sensitive skin around testes)
- Oviduct (aka fallopian tubes; location of fertilization) - Vas Deferens (aka sperm duct)
- Fimbriae (collect ova during ovulation) - Epididymus (collect sperm)
- Coron Radiata (protective covering of ova) - Alkaline (created by prostate gland to protect sperm from vaginal fluid)
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FEMALE
- Ovary
- Fimbriae
- Oviduct
- Uterus
- Cervix
- Vagina
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MALE
- Testes
- Epididymus
- Vas Deferens
- Prostate Gland
- Urethra
Define semen and uterine cycle.
SEMEN
liquid sperm protection; contains sperk, interstitial fluid, alkaline, mucus, oil, and fructose
Sperm: divided into head (contains 23 singular chromosomes), neck (100% mitochondria to produce ATP), and tail (convert ATP into fructose for movement)
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UTERINE CYCLE
aka menstrual cycle; made of four 4-7 day periods
- Follicular: uses follicle stimulating hormones (FSH); one mature ova produced
- Ovulation: uses estrogen; ova ruptures through ovary to be released
- Luteal: uses estrogen and leutanizing hormone (LH); uterus enlarges with mucus to catch fertilized egg
- Menstrual: uses progesterone; reset of hormones if fertilization does not occur; release of luteal wall
AaBb x AaBb
Punnett Square
Genotype
Phenotype
free response 1
If a subject who is 6’ 2” tall and weighs 220 lbs. consumes 1250 ml of oxygen in a 5 min period, calculate his BMR with the following data. In addition, calculate his heat production per meter of skin.
50 grams of protein
100 grams of fat
350 grams of carbohydrates
free response 2
Define BMR, Direct BMR, Indirect BMR, Net BMR, BSA, STPD, and Heat Loss.
BMR: Basal Metabolic Rate; rate of metabolism; genetically influenced
Direct BMR: O2 consumed (L/hr) * STPD * Food consumed; food consumed is a constant of 4.9 kCal (2.2 base kCal + 2.7 eating kCal)
Indirect: O2 consumed (L/hr) * STPD * Food consumed; food consumed is sum of four times the protein, four times the carbohydrates, and nine times the lipids
Net BMR: BMR minus Heat Loss
Body Surface Area: average of 2 square meters per body; height in centimeters (inches times 2.54), weight in kilograms (pounds over 2.2)
STPD: standard temperature and pressure, dry; constant of 0.9
Heat Loss: lost through every square meter of skin; BMR over BSA
