MIDTERM Flashcards
atomic number vs atomic mass
atomic number: # of protons in nucleus
mass number: # of protons + neutrons
anion vs cation
anion: - charge, gained/ stolen electrons
cation: + charge, give up electrons
isotope
same P different N
ions with opposite charges (+ & -) are attracted to each other like a magnet
ionic compound
covalent: bonds form when 2 or more atoms share electrons, rather than stealing/ giving up
stores genetic info
nucelus
organelle where proteins secreted/absorbed
endoplasmic reticulum
rough: ribosomes
smooth: no ribosomes, lipid synthesis
organelle that sorts, packages, transports proteins
golgi complex
organelle that generates most ATP through AEROBIC respiration
mitochondria
mitosis vs meiosis
mitosis (somatic cell division): tissue growth & repair – produces 2 identical daughter cells, 46 chromosomes = diploid
meiosis (reproductive cell division): produces 4 cells, not identical – 23 chromosomes = haploid
step 1 (protein synthesis) DNA → RNA, in nucleus
transcription
translation: step 2, in cytoplasm, makes proteins – RNA → protein @ ribosomes, translates copy back into strand of DNA
covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs, body cavities & ducts, forms gland – attached to basement membrane, avascular, mitosis occurs frequently, gets damaged frequently
epithelial tissue
CT: has blood supply, protects & supports organs, stores energy, helps immune system
simple vs stratified
simple: one layer
stratified: multiple layers
what type of epithelial cell is found around alveoli of lungs & blood vessels?
simple squamous
(flat, thin, tile shape) - found in areas where things can diffuse easily (CO2 & O2)
secretions & glands, sweat glands, kidney tubules
cuboidal
absorption, intestines
columnar (tall)
cilia vs microvilli
cilia: movement (bronchioles moving debris through respiratory system
microvilli: absorption, increase surface area
what 2 things make up connective tissue?
cells & ECM
secretes hormones directly into bloodstream
endocrine
exocrine: secretes hormones into ducts
release their contents by pinching off a portion of the cell (partial damage to cell)
aprocrine glands
merocrine: release contents into cell into vesicles (no damage to cell) & then out
holocrine: release contents when cell dies – whole cell bursts & contents go into extracellular space
cartilage primarily in epiglottis, outside of ear
elastic
hylaine: everywhere else, ends of bones in joints
fibrous: IVDs, meniscus – supports mm, tendons, ligaments
exocrine glands
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands
-2 types: Eccrine & Apocrine
-Mammary glands: specialized sudoriferous glands that secrete milk
Ceruminous (Wax) Glands
Keratinocytes
90%, produce keratin, water sealant & protector
Melanocytes - produce melanin, absorb UV
Langerhans (macrophages) - immune response for microbes
Merkel (Tact Epithelial) - contact sensory nerve for touch sensations
ABCDE’s
A – asymmetry
B – border
C – colour
D – diameter
E – evolving
strongest, found beneath periosteum of all bones & diaphysis of long bones, provides protection & support, osteons, lamellae, Sharpey’s fibers
compact bone
spongy: (trabecular/ cancellous) in interior of bone, filled with red & yellow bone marrow – no osteons
tough outer layer covering entire bone except where it articulates, many osteoblasts & attached to underlying bone tissue by Sharpey’s fibers – 2 layers: outer fibrous & inner osteogenic
periosteum
medullary cavity – hollow cylindrical space in diaphysis, contains fatty yellow bone marrow & blood vessels
endosteum – thin membrane, lines medullary cavity
mesenchymal tissue initially produces spongy bone that eventually is remodelled into compact bone – FLAT bones
intramembranous ossification
endochondral: mesenchymal tissue produces cartilage that is replaced by bone – create cartilage & replace with bone in LONG bones
4 distinct bone cells
Osteoprogenitor cells (Osteogenic or stem cell): cell division, produce osteoblasts
Osteoblasts: bone building
Osteocytes: mature bone cells
Osteoclasts: bone carving
if blood calcium level low = _____ is released, activates osteoclasts to break down bone, so more calcium gets put into blood
PTH
increases blood calcium (stimulates osteoclasts)
if blood calcium levels high = _____ inhibits osteoclasts, lowers blood calcium back to normal
Calcitonin
decreases blood calcium (inhibits osteoclasts)
excessive osteoclast formation - spongy mobile bone, fractures easily
Paget’s disease
Osteoporosis - bone resorption losing too much calcium, body loses more bone than it makes
Osteopenia - low bone mass
myofibrils are made from 3 types of proteins
- contractile - myosin & actin
- regulatory - tropomyosin/ troponin complex (Ca2+)
- structural - keep thick & thin filaments in proper alignment, give myofibril extensibility & elasticity, link myofibril to sarcolemma
increase in mm size, cell grows larger
hypertrophy
hyperplasia: increase in # of mm fibers
atrophy: decrease mm size
muscle contraction process
Acetylcholine (ACh) → Na+ Influx → Ca2+ Release → Actin-Myosin Binding →
mm fibers have 4 ways to acquire / use ATP
- previously stored in mm fibres - 3 sec worth
- from creatine phosphate (short burst of energy) - 15 sec
- by anaerobic glycolysis (no O2) - 30-40 sec
- by aerobic cellular respiration - min-hours
postural mm & endurance, resists fatigue, generate ATP by aerobic respiration
slow oxidative fibers
fast oxidative-glycolytic – walking/ sprinting, larger mm (quads, hams), intermediate, fast speed of contraction, generate ATP by aerobic respiration
fast glycolytic – little myoglobin, short duration (weight lifting, throwing a ball), fast contraction (EYE MUSCLES), fatigue quickly, generate ATP by glycolysis
the enteric system is part of the….
ANS
brain & spinal cord
CNS
PNS = everything outside
support, protect & nourish neurons, help maintain homeostasis, continue to divide throughout life, do NOT conduct action potentials
neuroglia
microglia = immune defence
largest & most numerous, long processes – provide strength, form BBB to protect us from toxins/ microbes, regulate ion concentration for action potentials
atrocytes (CNS)
myelinate axons in the PNS
schwann cells
oligodendrocytes (CNS)
RMP
= 70mV → inside more negative than outside
depolarization: _____ enters, becomes positive
repolarization: _____ leaves, becomes negative
Na+; K+
EPSP vs IPSP
EPSP: DEPOLARIZE → make it more positive
IPSP: HYPERPOLARIZE → make it more negative
continuous vs saltatory conduction
continuous: UNMYELINATED axons, slower
saltatory: MYELINATED axons, jumping at “Nodes of Ranvier”, FASTER
3 factors that affect the speed of an action potential
- amount of myelination – more myelin = faster
- axon diameter – large diameter = faster
- temperature – high temp = faster
acid vs base
(determined by how many H+ or OH- they have)
ACID: pH less than 7
BASE: pH greater than 7
type of diffusion that involves water
osmosis
moves from [HIGH] to [LOW]
2 layers of the dermis
papillary – smaller, more superficial → made of areolar CT
reticular – larger, deeper region attached to hypodermis → made of dense irregular CT
3 methods to maintain & balance pH
- Buffer systems – convert strong acids & bases into weaker ones → 3 main buffer systems: Protein, Carbonic acid-bicarbonate (most used), phosphate
- Exhalation of carbon dioxide from the lungs
- Kidney excretion of H+
3 main buffer systems
- Protein
- Carbonic acid-bicarbonate (most used)
- Phosphate
CO2 & HCO3-
CO2 = respiratory
HCO3- = metabolic
Dosis = acid/C02 accumulate, lower PH
Alkalosis = acid/c02 loss, raises PH
*more CO2 = more acidic
acidosis vs alkalosis
Respiratory acidosis: CO2 high, low pH
Respiratory alkalosis: CO2 low, high pH
Metabolic acidosis: HCO3- low, low pH
Metabolic alkalosis: HCO3- high, high pH
WBC count indicating infection or disease
Leukocytosis: WBC count over 10,000 = infection
Leukopenia: WBC count under 5,000 = disease
granular vs agranular leukocytes
Granular
a) Neutrophils (60-70%)
b) Eosinophils (2-4%)
c) Basophils (.5-1%)
Agranular
a) Lymphocytes (20-25%)
b) Monocytes (3-8%)
produces ALL types of blood cells, formation of RBCs in red bone marrow
hematopoiesis
Erthythopoeisis: RBCs produced
Leukopoiesis: WBCs produced
RBCs and how they are destroyed
live for 120 days
byproduct of breaking down RBCS = bilirubin
blood types
type O = no antigens
type AB cannot donate to just A or B, only to AB
all negatives cannot donate to positives
AB- = missing RH factor
all (-) can donate to (+) but (+) CAN NOT donate to (-)
3 types of capillaries
- Continuous - most common, no holes, found in CNS, lungs, mm tissue, skin
- Fenestrated - little holes, found in kidneys, small intestines, glands
- Sinusoids - larger holes for RBCS to go through, in spleen & liver
types of shock (inadequate blood flow to body systems)
- Hypovolemic - sudden blood loss, or loss of lots of fluids, blood volume decreases
- Cardiogenic – heart fails to pump adequately
- Vascular – systemic vascular resistance decreases causes too much arterial dilation
- Neurogenic – head trauma to cardiovascular centre causes arterial dilation
- Obstructive – portion of circulation is blocked
vascular resistance depends on 3 things
- diameter of vessel lumen
- blood viscosity (how thick it is)
- vessel length
blood vessels & aging
Decreased compliance or distensibility of aorta
Reduction in cardiac mm fibre size
Loss of cardiac mm strength
Reduced cardiac output
Reduced heart rate
Increase in systolic BP
Increases cholesterol accumulation
Increases in CAD (coronary artery disease) & CHF (congestive heart failure)
spider veins vs varicose veins
varicose: veins become dilated & twisted, usually due to faulty valves, create backflow
spider: smaller & closer to surface of skin
AORTA
blood leaves heart
INFERIOR VENA CAVA: carries blood back to heart
