FINAL EXAM Flashcards by gabi beselt

which valve prevents back flow from going into the left ventricle?

aortic semi-lunar valve

pulmonary: prevents back flow into RIGHT ventricle

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which muscle is attached to the chordae tendineae?

papillary muscles

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pathway of blood through the heart

aortic valve → aortic arch → coronary arteries first → out descending aorta to rest of body

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which layer of the heart lines inner heart chambers?

endocardium

epicardium: external layer – outermost
myocardium: middle layer, mm, 95% of wall

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blood vessels supplying the myocardium of the heart

coronary arteries

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what condition do you get when vessels are blocked?

heart attack/ myocardial infarction

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what drains deoxygenated blood back into right atria?

coronary sinus

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the T wave represents…

ventricles repolarize (relax/ diastole)

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the P wave represents…

atria depolarizes (systole/ contraction)

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the QRS wave represents…

big rise, ventricular depolarization (systole/ contract), atria repolarizing (diastole/ relax)

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conduction pathway (SA node, AV node)

SA node → AV node → AV bundle of HIS → right & left bundle branches → Purkinje fibers

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what wraps around both ventricles to convey action potentials?

Purkinje fibers

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an action potential is automatically and spontaneously produced by _____ in the SA node of the conduction system

autorhythmic fibres

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T/F - increasing heart rate will increase stroke volume

FALSE

= increase cardiac output

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stroke volume x HR to determine blood flow through body

cardiac output

SV: amount of blood being ejected each contraction
HR: heart beats per min

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factors that affect stroke volume

preload (⬆ SV)
contractility (⬆ stroke length)
afterload (⬇ SV)

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when oxygen diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary capillaries; this is termed…

external respiration

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exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries & tissue cells

internal respiration

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break down carbohydrates to generate ATP

cellular respiration

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the ____ is part of the lower respiratory system

larynx

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different regions of the pharynx

Nasopharynx (air only)
Oropharynx (air & food)
Laryngopharynx (air & food, behind larynx))

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conducting vs respiratory zone

CONDUCTING: no gas exchange
nose → terminal bronchioles

RESPIRATORY: gas exchange
respiratory bronchioles → alveoli

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secretes surfactant, which lowers surface tension of fluid, so alveoli don’t collapse in

type II alveolar cells

type I: simple squamous epithelial cells, line entire alveoli wall, main site of gas exchange
alveolar macrophages: phagocytes that remove dust/ debris

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accessory muscles of inhalation

SCM, scalenes, pec minor

primary: diaphragm, external intercostals

active exhalation: internal intercostals, abdominals (rectus abdominis)

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factors affecting RBC O2 transportation

Acidity Amount of CO2 Temperature Molecule 23 BPG More acidic = decrease affinity of O2 (more oxygen released)

hemoglobin’s O₂ affinity influenced by...

↑ Acidity = ↓ O₂ affinity (more release) ↑ CO₂ = ↓ O₂ affinity ↑ Temp = ↓ O₂ affinity ↑ 2,3-BPG = ↓ O₂ affinity

what factor will decrease oxygen's affinity for Hb so it travels into the tissues?

increase in 2,3 BPG

present at birth, not specific, does not adapt, same response to every pathogen it encounters 1st & 2nd line of defence

innate immunity

acquired over a lifetime, specific response to pathogen cell-mediated & antibody mediated immunity

adaptive immunity

innate immunity - 1st line of defence

skin, mucous membranes, epidermis, eyes, hairs, cilia, salivary products, gastric juices in stomach

innate immunity - 2nd line of defence

antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, NKCs, inflammation, fever

adaptive/ acquired - cell mediated

cytotoxic T cells/ killer T cells, memory T cells antibody mediated: B cells, plasma cells secreting antibodies, memory B cells

most numerous & most abundant antibody, crosses placenta, long term immunity

IgG

secretions, tears, saliva, breast milk

IgA IgM: antibodies 1st to arrive IgE: allergy/ hypersensitivity reaction

when you get a vaccine of a virus, what type of immunity are you receiving?

artificially acquired active passive: IV injection of antibodies

when you have a cold (producing your own antibodies), what type of immunity are you receiving?

naturally acquired active passive: passed down through placenta/ breast milk

what does the right thoracic duct drain?

R arm, thorax cavity, head & neck L: everything else Cisterna Chyli: origin of left thoracic duct

where are T Cells produced?

bone marrow, mature in thymus B cells: produced & mature in bone marrow

biggest difference between lymph & interstitial fluid

location (interstitial is everything outside capillaries, lymph is within lymphatic vessels & takes in more lipids)

functional unit of kidney

nephron

where does filtration take place in the nephron?

renal corpuscle

where does reabsorption & secretion take place in the nephron?

renal tubules

anatomy and filtration of nephron

blood enters through Bowman's capsule → filters into tubules → GFR determined water/solutes reabsorbed from tubules to bloodstream (mainly in proximal tubule) bloodstream secretes waste products (tubular secretion)

order of filtrate flow

Glomerular capsule > proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) > nephron loop > distal convoluted tubule (DCT) > collecting duct

what kidney structure has long loops of Henle to help concentrate urine?

juxtamedullary nephron

when H+ travel from the capillaries into the distal convoluted tubule this is termed...

tubular secretion

when water is transported from the lumen of the proximal convoluted tubule to the bloodstream this is termed...

reabsorption

filtration in a nephron goes from blood to...

tubules (glomerulus) reabsorption: tubules → blood (PCT)

in the descending limb, ____ is reabsorbed in the ascending limb, ____ is reabsorbed

water; salt

______ stimulates Angiotensin II which works to ________

low BP; increase BP

what 3 hormones increase BV & BP?

Angiotensin II: secreted in response to low BP Aldosterone: secreted from adrenal gland Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): secreted from hypothalams, when gets released → prevent or decrease amount of GFR

what hormones are secreted by the hypothalamus?

GnRH & Oxytocin

secreted by heart, when heart gets stressed (increase in BP or BV), when it gets released it will DECREASE BP & BV

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

related to calcium, when blood Ca2+ levels down, hormones get released, works on osteoclasts to increase Ca2+ into blood, increases reabsorption of calcium from kidney tubules

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

what hormones are secreted from adrenal medulla?

epinephrine & norepinephrine

kidney hormones: increase BP or BV - they do this by _____ or by ____

absorbing more water decreasing how much gets filtered

what enzyme is involved in the RAAS pathway to help facilitate, if it didn't have this then BP would stay low all the time

ACE enzyme (converts angiotensin I → angiotensin I = vasocinstriction)

the proximal convoluted tubules reabsorb what percentage of filtered water?

65%

the stomach secretes _____ for absorbing vitamin B12

intrinsic factor

pepsinogen breaks down...

protein (also trypsin) lipase: break down fats salivary amylase: digests carbohydrates chymotrypsin: proteas nucleases: digests RNA & DNA

hormone in stomach that gets released to increase gastric juices and to increase motility of stomach

gastrin

why is the pancreas an exocrine & endocrine organ?

secretes digestive enzymes into small intestine (exocrine) & hormones directly into bloodstream (endocrine)

alpha cells secrete ____, which ____ blood glucose levels where as beta cells secrete ____, which ____ blood glucose levels

glucagon; raises insulin; lowers

where is bile produced & stored

produced: liver stored/ released: gallbladder

if a gallstone was stuck in the bile duct would it impact the pancreas or gallbladder?

both

where does most of absorption occur in the digestive tract and what vessel brings nutrients from intestine to liver?

small intestine; hepatic portal vein

what is released when lipids or fats enter duodenum, helps contract to push bile out to break down lipids?

cholecystokinin (CCK)

what vitamin is produced by the intestinal bacteria and helps with blood blotting?

vitamin K

what vitamin is important in collagen formation and a deficiency can lead to scurvy?

vitamin C

what breaks down glucose into ATP and is the first step of cellular respiration?

GLYCOLYSIS

break down of glycogen → into glucose

GLYCOGENOLYSIS

making glycogen → glucose

GLYCOGENOSIS

making glucose → from fat & protein

GLUCONEOGENESIS

synthesis of fats (triglycerides) from other sources like carbohydrates

lipogenesis lipolysis = breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol & fatty acids for energy

when someone eats more calories than what is needed for ATP production, where will calories go?

turned into fat (adipose tissue, fat cells) 50% stored in subcutaneous layer

what produces hydrochloric acid & intrinsic factor (for absorption of B12)

parietal cells mucous neck cells: secrete alkaline mucus G cell: secretes gastrin

what secretes pepsinogen & gastric lipase (breaks down proteins into peptides)

chief cells

_____ is the major cation in intracellular fluid ____ is the most abundant cation in extracellular fluid

K+, Na+

most abundant mineral in the body

calcium

which vitamins are fat soluble?

K, A, D, E water soluble: B, C

what mineral is an important constituent in creating thyroxine?

iodine

what is secreted from the anterior pituitary?

FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, GH, prolactin, MSH

the posterior pituitary is a storage unit for which 2 hormones?

oxytocin & ADH

releases: thyroid releasing hormone & thyroid stimulating hormone (GHRH, GHIH)

hypothalamus

prolactin produces ____ where as oxytocin ____

breast milk; lets it down

in males: LH → secretes ____, FSH: helps with maturing ____

testosterone; sperm

in females: LH → stimulate ____ where egg is released, FSH → stimulate ____ so they can mature

ovulation; follicles

what 2 hormones play a part in estrogen release?

LH & FSH

if you have high blood calcium levels, what is released?

calcitonin (secreted from thyroid gland) low blood calcium: increase PTH, decreased calcitonin

cortisol is secreted from the ____

adrenal glands (cortex)

aldosterone is secreted from the ____

adrenal cortex

what condition is characterized by high thyroid hormones?

Graves disease (hyperthyroidism) low: hypothyroidism (Hashimoto's)

what condition is caused by hypersecretion of cortisol by adrenal cortex?

Cushing's syndrome Addison’s disease: hyposecretion of glucocorticoids & aldosterone

where is seminal fluid produced?

Bulbo-urethral glands Seminal Vesicle Prostate

high FSH in males stimulates what?

spermatogenesis

during what part of a female's cycle does ovulation/egg release occur?

day 14 (ovulation)

implantation occurs in the...

uterus

egg fertilization occurs in the...

fallopian tubes

ovaries in females are similar to ____ in males

testes ovum: sperm labia majora: scrotum labia minora: spongy urethra bulb vestibule: bulb of penis clitorus: glans penis paraurethral glands: prostate greater vestibular glands: bulbourethral glands