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Cell Physiology > Midterm 1 > Flashcards

Midterm 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What does physiology mean?

A

study of normal functioning of a living organism and its component parts, including all it’s chemical and physical processes

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2
Q

What are emergent properties?

A

greater than the simple sum of individual parts

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3
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

similar condition | output must equal input and vice versa

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4
Q

What are the environmental factors of homeostasis?

A

osmolarity, pH, temperature

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5
Q

Which feedback control (positive or negative) is homeostatic?

A

negative feedback

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6
Q

What are the 5 types of active transport across the membrane?

A

exocytosis | endocytosis | phagocytosis | direct/primary active transport | indirect/secondary active transport

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7
Q

What are the 4 types of passive transport across the membrane?

A

simple diffusion | facilitated diffusion | ion channel | aquaporin channel (osmosis)

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8
Q

Which active transport types are protein-mediated?

A

direct/primary active transport | indirect/secondary active transport

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9
Q

Which passive transport types are protein-mediated?

A

facilitated diffusion | ion channel | aquaporin channel

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10
Q

What are channel proteins?

A

creates a water-filled pore

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11
Q

What are 2 kinds of channel proteins?

A

gated and open

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12
Q

What are open channel proteins?

A

pores - usually open

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13
Q

What are gated channel proteins?

A

open and close in response to signals

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14
Q

What are carrier proteins?

A

never form an open channel between the two sides of the membrane

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15
Q

What are the 3 kinds of carrier proteins?

A

uniport | symport | antiport

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16
Q

What are uniport carrier proteins?

A

transport only one kind of substrate

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17
Q

What are symport carrier proteins?

A

moves 2 or more substrates in the same direction across the membrane

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18
Q

What are antiport carrier proteins?

A

move substrates in opposite directions

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19
Q

Which ions make up most of the extracellular fluid (Na+ or K+)?

A

Na+

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20
Q

Which ions make up most of the intracellular fluid (Na+ or K+)?

A

K+

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21
Q

What are the 2 types of gated channels?

A

voltage-gated | ligand-gated

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22
Q

What are voltage-gated channels?

A

channels that respond to changes in intracellular voltage

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23
Q

What are ligand-gated channels?

A

channels that respond to binding of molecules

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24
Q

What are carrier proteins also called?

A

transporters

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25
Q

What are 3 amino acid transporters commonly spoken about?

A

GABA | Glutamate | Glycine

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26
Q

What are 3 types of transporters?

A

amino acid | carbohydrate | neurotransmitter

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27
Q

How do carrier proteins work?

A

changes conformation to let things in or out | can be modulated by voltage but not gated

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28
Q

What is the specificity of the molecules to channels and carrier proteins?

A

will allow some things in but has a high preference to specific molecules

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29
Q

What is cooperative binding?

A

as binding of specific/preferred molecule increases = affinity of more of those molecules increases

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30
Q

What is primary transport?

A

direct active transport | ATP hydrolyzed directly

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31
Q

What is secondary transport?

A

indirect active transport | concentration gradient created by ATP

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32
Q

What are tight junctions?

A

proteins that hold membrane together

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33
Q

What cells are excitable cells?

A

neurons and muscle cells

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34
Q

What cells are non-excitable cells?

A

all other cell types in body

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35
Q

What does it mean by “excitable cells”?

A

the ability of cells to be electrically excited = generating an action potential

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36
Q

What are the 3 basic structural components of neuronal cells?

A

cell body | axon | axon terminal

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37
Q

Which of the 3 parts of neuronal cells have the ability to affect the next cell (post-synaptic cell)?

A

axon and axon terminal

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38
Q

Which component of a neuron cell triggers a post-synaptic effect?

A

axon terminal

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39
Q

What is a synapse?

A

area where pre-synaptic and post-synaptic cell communicate

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40
Q

What is synaptic cleft?

A

the gap between pre-synaptic and post-synaptic cell

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41
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

molecules released at axon terminal to affect post-synaptic cell

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42
Q

What are purkinje cells?

A

specialized neuron cells lining the surface of the cerebellum

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43
Q

What is voltage?

A

force that drives movement of charge = dictates how much charge can be pulled/pushed

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44
Q

What is the avg charge of cells? (intracellular)

A

-50mv

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45
Q

What is the Nerst equation?

A

measure membrane potential of a cell based on ONE ion

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46
Q

What is the cell voltage when there is an equal concentration of K+?

A

-90mV

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47
Q

What will the movement of potassium (K+) be if the cell ‘s voltage is -90mV?

A

no movement because it is at equal concentration = no driving force

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48
Q

What affects the movement of ions in or out of cells?

A

charge and concentration difference

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49
Q

What is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation?

A

measure membrane potential of a cell based on MULTIPLE ions

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50
Q

What are the 2 factors that influence the membrane potential?

A

uneven distribution of ions across membrane | different membrane permeability of ions

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51
Q

What is the equilibrium concentration of Na+?

A

+60mV

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52
Q

What is the equilibrium concentration of Cl-?

A

-63mV

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53
Q

What is depolarization?

A

cell voltage going towards (+) voltage

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54
Q

What is hyperpolarization?

A

cell voltage going towards (-) voltage

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55
Q

What is sub-threshold graded potential?

A

below threshold = not enough charge to drive post-synaptic cell because signal strength decreased

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56
Q

What is supra-threshold graded potential?

A

above threshold = a lot of charge to drive psot-synaptic cell | strong signal strength could stimulate more cells

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57
Q

How is an action potential generated from a stimulus?

A

axon hillock converts stimulus into an impulse

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58
Q

During an action potential, which ion channel (Na+ or K+) opens first?

A

Na+

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59
Q

During an action potential, why does the K+ channel have a delay in opening?

A

to prevent charges from cancelling out

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60
Q

What gives you current?

A

electrons moving

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61
Q

What is an electrochemical gradient?

A

the chemical (concentration) gradient and the difference in charge across the membrane

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62
Q

What happens when voltage inside the cell increases?

A

drives current as long as resistance doesn’t change | more charge will flow through axon | more ions will flow in/out cell

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63
Q

What dictates how much current goes in and out of the cell?

A

rate of movement of ions

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64
Q

What is a negative (-) current?

A

when the positive charge moves into the cell

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65
Q

What is a positive (+) current?

A

when positive charge moves out of the cell

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66
Q

Which equation (GHK or Nernst) can tell you the equilibrium potential of an ion based on its concentration in/out of the cell?

A

Nernst

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67
Q

What type of ion channels are densely found more towards/near the cell body? (K+, Na+, Cl-, or Ca2+)

A

Na+

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68
Q

What is an absolute refractory period?

A

during depolarization and hyperpolarization | no stimulus can trigger another AP

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69
Q

What is a relative refractory period?

A

after absolute refractory period, second AP potential can be produced if the stimulus strength is greater

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70
Q

What is the triggering zone?

A

contains high density of voltage-gated Na+ channels

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71
Q

Where is the triggering zone found?

A

near cell body, at start of axon

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72
Q

Why do squid axons not need myelination?

A

axons are so big (1mL in diameter)

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73
Q

Where in animals are axons myelinated?

A

in the brain

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74
Q

What is the purpose of myelin sheaths?

A

prevents AP from leaking out since channels along axon causes APs to leak out = myelin sheaths blocks these leakage points = increase om signal strength

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75
Q

What is saltatory conduction?

A

nerve impusles will jump from one node of Ranvier to another = faster conduction of APs

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76
Q

What are nodes of Ranvier?

A

gaps between the myelin sheaths on an axon

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77
Q

What is multiple sclerosis?

A

myelin sheaths are dying off = cannot conduct APs as fast = uncoordinated movements

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78
Q

What is hypokalemia?

A

low in potassium

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79
Q

What is hyperkalemia?

A

high in potassium

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80
Q

What happens if potassium ions are not in the right concentration?

A

neurons won’t function correctly

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81
Q

What are electrical synapses?

A

the presynaptic neuron is DIRECTLY connected to the post-synaptic neuron || gap junctions

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82
Q

Why are electrical synapses more effective and efficient?

A

They are direct

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83
Q

What are gap junctions?

A

channels joining pre-synaptic terminal and post-synaptic membrane

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84
Q

What is a disadvantage of electrical synapses?

A

post-synaptic cell will have the same effect (excited or inhibited) as the pre-synaptic cell

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85
Q

What are chemical synapses?

A

use neurotransmitters to communicate = INDIRECTLY connected

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86
Q

What are excitatory neurotransmitters? Example?

A

excites post-synaptic cell to generate AP &raquo_space;> depolarizes the post-synaptic cell | ex: Glutamate

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87
Q

What are inhibitory neurotransmitters? Example?

A

inhibits post-synaptic cell from generating AP | ex: GABA and glycine

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88
Q

What are 3 places on the neuron can pre-synaptic terminals attach to and release a signal?

A

dendritic tree | cell body | terminal

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89
Q

What 2 voltage-gated channels are important?

A

Na+ and K+

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90
Q

What does “activation” mean when referring to the Na+ voltage-gated ion channel?

A

gate is open

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91
Q

What does “deactivation” mean when referring to the Na+ voltage-gated ion channel?

A

gate is closed

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92
Q

What does “inactivation” mean when referring to the Na+ voltage-gated ion channel?

A

inactivation gate (the ball) is in the channel thus inactivating it

93
Q

Why are mitochondria needed in chemical synapses?

A

for energy in order to be able to fuse the vesicles to the membrane to release the NTs

94
Q

What is a complex AP?

A

a very strong stimulus such as falling or tripping

95
Q

What does it mean by “APs are all or nothing”?

A

means that once the (+) charge is initiated into the cell and passes threshold = there will either be an AP generated or not

96
Q

How can neurons spontaneously or continuously fire APs?

A

if there are a lot of NTs present around the synaptic cleft

97
Q

How can spontaneously firing cells stop firing APs?

A

if it is given an inhibitory signal

98
Q

How are silent neurons excited?

A

by receiving an input signal

99
Q

Why is oxygen needed for neuron firing and sustaining high-frequency APs?

A

provides energy | hypoxia level affects amount of APs fired

100
Q

What kind of receptor are G-protein coupled receptors?

A

metabotropic receptor (as it metabolizes GTP)

101
Q

How can inputs into the cell cancel each other out?

A

if one is excitatory and one is inhibitory

102
Q

What are 2 types of glutamate receptor channels?

A

AMPA and NMDA

103
Q

What happens when glutamate binds to AMPA?

A

allows Na+ to enter = depolarization of cell

104
Q

What happens when glutamate binds to NMDA?

A

release of Mg2+ block &raquo_space;> allows Ca2+ to enter &raquo_space;> turns on gene expression of AMPA receptors

105
Q

How is Mg2+ released from the NMDA channel?

A

when intracellular voltage is (+) &raquo_space;> Mg2+ disengages out of the NMDA pore = NMDA activated

106
Q

What are coincidence inputs?

A

2 inputs coming in at the same time on the same neuron

107
Q

What are the 2 types of coincidence inputs?

A

spatial summation | temporal summation

108
Q

What is spatial summation?

A

simultaneous inputs to different places on neuron are added together

109
Q

What is temporal summation?

A

two or more inputs occurring at different times are added together

110
Q

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP)

A

depolarizing graded potential in postsynaptic neuron due to activated excitatory synapse

111
Q

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSP)

A

hyperpolarizing graded potential in postsynaptic neuron due to activated inhibitory synapse

112
Q

What is the threshold level? (mV)

A

-55mV

113
Q

What is the resting membrane potential? (mV)

A

-70mV

114
Q

What is the purpose of the refractory period?

A

help prevent signals from traveling in both directions down the axon at once

115
Q

What is the effect of myelination?

A

reduces the amount of current “leaking” through membrane = improves electrotonic conduction

116
Q

What is the main role of calcium ions at chemical synapses?

A

cause fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane of the axon terminal

117
Q

How does fast axonal transport work?

A

use motor proteins that walk down microtubules to transport organelles and vesicles anterograde and retrograde with use of ATP = need a lot of mitochondria

118
Q

What are basket cells?

A

GABAergic interneurons

119
Q

What is the function of basket cells?

A

make inhibitory synapses and control potentials of target cells

120
Q

What are glial cells?

A

support cells that glue and hold the nervous system together

121
Q

What is the function of glia cells?

A

hold nervous system together and provide nutrition and maintenance for cells

122
Q

What are astrocytes?

A

highly branched (star-like) found near synapses

123
Q

What are the functions of astrocytes?

A

take up release chemicals (cleans up NTs) | provide substrate for ATP production | help maintain electrolyte homeostasis

124
Q

What are microglia?

A

specialized immune cells for the nervous system

125
Q

What are satellite cells?

A

non-myelin forming Schwann cells that support cell body clusters

126
Q

What are Schwann cells?

A

form meylin in PNS

127
Q

What are Oligodendrocytes?

A

form myelin in CNS

128
Q

What is ganglia?

A

cell body clusters

129
Q

What are the chemicals that guide axon growth during development?

A

neurotrophic factors

130
Q

How do growth cones respond chemotropically?

A

by retracting or extending the axon

131
Q

What are the 2 types of synaptic plasticity?

A

long term potentiation | long term depression

132
Q

What is long term potentiation?

A

synapses are functioning stronger

133
Q

What is long term depression?

A

synapses are functioning weaker

134
Q

What is synaptic plasticity?

A

basis of learning and memory

135
Q

What was the Morris-Water Maze?

A

tests the function of NMDA in relation to synaptic plasticity

136
Q

What was the finding from the Morris-Water Maze?

A

rat cannot remember his way because its NMDA receptors are blocked = shows NMDA and AMPA receptors are necessary for learning and memory

137
Q

What is synaptic potentiation

A

strength of synapse

138
Q

What is the S4 segment on the voltage-gated channels?

A

charged subunit that goes across the membrane | responsible for making these channels voltage-gated

139
Q

Why is the S4 segment important?

A

it has (+) charged amino acids = when membrane changes voltage = these amino acids will move

140
Q

What will happen if there was a mutation in S4 gene?

A

removes voltage capability

141
Q

What is the difference between the K+ and Na+ voltage-gated channel?

A

K+ = 4 proteins (4 genes) | Na+ = 1 protein (1 gene)

142
Q

What type of channels are inhibition and excitation channels?

A

ligand-gated

143
Q

What are the physiological differences between electrical synapses and chemical synapses?

A

electrical synapses = no mitochonria, no vesicles | chemical synapses = mitochondria and vesicles with NTs are present

144
Q

What makes up the synaptic density?

A

aggregation of membrane proteins

145
Q

What is synaptic density?

A

all of the aggregation of proteins involved in vesicle fusion

146
Q

What does “kiss and run” mean in terms of NT release?

A

vesicle kisses membrane &raquo_space;> release contents &raquo_space;> vesicle gets taken up by pre-synaptic cell to be filled with more NTs

147
Q

What is the function of the NT vesicles?

A

to be filled with NTs (not terminate signal)

148
Q

What do NT vesicles have on their membranes that allow NTs to come in?

A

tranporter proteins

149
Q

What are SNARE proteins?

A

proteins involved with the docking of NT vesicles for fusion

150
Q

How do the NT vesicles fuse?h

A

AP comes down axon &raquo_space;> depolarize axon terminal &raquo_space;> activates voltage-gated Ca2+ channel

151
Q

What happens if intracellular level of Ca2+ is high?

A

cell starts dying because proteins are constantly activated in the cell

152
Q

What is post-synaptic density?

A

all of the proteins on the membrane of the post-synaptic cell

153
Q

What is perisynaptic zone?

A

close to the synapse

154
Q

What is the extrasynaptic zone?

A

outside/far from synapse

155
Q

What do glutamatergic synapses have?

A

glutamate transporters

156
Q

What do GABAergic synapses have?

A

GABA transporters

157
Q

What do glycinergic synapses have?

A

glycine transporters

158
Q

What is EAAT?

A

excitatory amino acid transporter = glutamate transporter

159
Q

What is the driving force of glutamate transporters?

A

K+ and protons

160
Q

What is the driving force of GABA transporters?

A

Na+ gradient and Cl-

161
Q

What are ventricles?

A

spaces in brain filled with CSF, no blood but constant movement and production of CSF

162
Q

How is O2 supplied to the brain to make energy?

A

via blood supply

163
Q

What happens if major vessels burst in the brain?

A

neurons start dying

164
Q

What is the blood-brain barrier?

A

junctions between cells lining cells = separates brain from rest of body

165
Q

What is AMPA?

A

sodium channels

166
Q

What is the purpose of NDMA receptors?

A

increase cell response to glutamate

167
Q

In which part of the brain is long term potentiation (LTP) found?

A

hippocampus

168
Q

Which NT is associated with long term potentiation (LTP)?

A

glutamate (AMPA and NMDA)

169
Q

In which part of the brain is long term depression (LTD) found?

A

cerebellum (hind brain)

170
Q

What are parallel fibers?

A

axons of granule cells innervating (making synapses) with Purkinje cells

171
Q

What are granule cells?

A

cell which axons become part of the parallel fibers which constantly stimulate Purkinje cell

172
Q

What is significant of granule cells?

A

each cell represents a part of your body | most numerous types of neurons in the brain

173
Q

Which cell decides which synapse to weaken in long term depression (LTD)

A

Purkinje cell = coincidence detector

174
Q

Is NMDA used in long term depression (LTD)?

A

no, LTD is NMDAR-independent

175
Q

What kind of memory is associated with the hippocampus?

A

short term

176
Q

What is the cerebellum highly involved with?

A

motor learning

177
Q

What was the Rotarod test?

A

tests if LTD is damaged or not working

178
Q

What was the Rotarod test findings?

A

if mice cannot stay on rod = LTD is not working

179
Q

What are the 2 main branches of the nervous system?

A

Central and Peripheral

180
Q

What are the 2 pathways of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

A

sensory and motor

181
Q

What is the sensory component of the PNS?

A

all info coming from environment into the nervous system to the brain

182
Q

What is the motor component of the PNS?

A

info coming from brain to induce a motor response to sensory info

183
Q

What are the 3 parts of the brainstem?

A

mid-brain | pons | medulla oblongata

184
Q

What is contained within the brainstem (what functions)?

A

basic functions and controls such as breathing and heart rate

185
Q

What is the cerebrum?

A

where most executive decisions are made

186
Q

What are the 4 lobes of the cerebrum?

A

frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

187
Q

What is grey matter?

A

where the cell bodies are

188
Q

What is white matter?

A

where all the axons are

189
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

connects left and right sides = allows those sides to communicate

190
Q

What is basal ganglia?

A

initiation of motion in the CNS | generates new movement

191
Q

What type of NT and transporters are associated with the basal ganglia of the CNS?

A

dopaminergic transporters and dopamine

192
Q

What role does dopamine play in?

A

intiating movement

193
Q

What is important for movement to start?

A

neurons need to fire an AP

194
Q

What structure is damaged in Parkinson’s disease patients?

A

basal ganglia

195
Q

What problem do Parkinson’s patients have? Why?

A

hard time initiating motions = b/c dopaminergic neurons are dying off = basal ganglia cannot command initiation of motion

196
Q

What is the treatment for Parkinson’s disease?

A

dopamine supplements

197
Q

What is a problem with the treatment for Parkinson’s disease and how is it solved?

A

dopamine supplement cannot cross blood-brain barrier | solution = L-dopa = can cross blood-brain barrier (enzyme in brain cuts it to dopamine)

198
Q

How is the grey and white matter organized in the spinal cord and in the cerebrum?

A

spinal cord: grey = inner / white = outer | cerebrum: grey = outer / white = inner

199
Q

What is the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) of the spinal cord?

A

sensory input to the CNS

200
Q

What is the bulge on the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord?

A

where all the cell bodies are coming from different parts of the body

201
Q

What is the ventral root of the spinal cord?

A

motor output, no bulge

202
Q

What is decussation?

A

fibers shift control from one side of the brain to the other (left side can control left and switches to right side)

203
Q

What do the different layers of cell bodies in the grey matter of the cortex correspond to?

A

different functions

204
Q

Where is the limbic system located?

A

inside of the cerebrum

205
Q

What are the 3 parts of the limbic system?

A

hippocampus, thalamus, amygdala

206
Q

What is the hippocampus involved with?

A

short term memory

207
Q

What is the thalamus involved with?

A

gateway of information, accumulation of neurons (in CNS-nuclei and in PNS-ganglia

208
Q

What is the amygdala involved with?

A

emotions and memory

209
Q

What is the prefrontal cortex?

A

involved in high executive function

210
Q

What enhances the structure of receptors part of LTP to provide support?

A

actin

211
Q

How does the NMDA receptor aid in forming short-term memory?

A

the potentiation in the NMDA receptors

212
Q

What is habituation?

A

gets used to stimulus over time

213
Q

What is sensitization?

A

encourages stronger reflex

214
Q

How is EPSP affected in habituation?

A

decreases

215
Q

What is an example of long-term depression?

A

cerebellar - motor learning

216
Q

What happens if cerebellar LTD is disrupted?

A

motor learning is disrupted

217
Q

What are the 4 neuromuscular disorders associated with synapses?

A

parkinson’s | schizophrenia | depression | myasthenia gravis

218
Q

What is Myasthenia gravis?

A

autoimmune disease targeting acetylcholine receptors and severely impacts neuromuscular activity

219
Q

What are 2 diseases that are associated with single mutations in ion channels?

A

cystic fibrosis, myotonia, hyperekplexia

220
Q

What is cystic fibrosis? What mutation does it have?

A

mucus build-up in lungs and pancreas | mutation in Cl- channel

221
Q

What is myotonia, hyperekplexia? What mutation does it have?

A

fainting goats | mutation in glycine receptors

222
Q

Where are specialized synapses found?

A

visual and auditory systems

223
Q

What is an example of a specialized synapse?

A

ribbon synapses (vesicles attach to protein and closer to membrane)

224
Q

What are meninges?

A

brain covering

225
Q

What are the 3 layers of meninges?

A

dura mater (outermost layer) | arachnoid membrane | pia mater

226
Q

What does cauda equina mean?

A

spinal cord in lumbar vertebrae

227
Q

What are the 2 functions of the blood-brain barrier?

A

prevents solutes coming between epithelial cells in brain | protects nervous system from toxins in circulation

228
Q

What is the Circle of Willis?

A

blood supply to the brain

Cell Physiology (13 decks)

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