Middle Childhood Flashcards
Growth Spurt
a period during which growth advances at a dramatically rapid rate compared with other periods
Reaction Time
the amount of time required to respond to stimulus
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
a disorder characterized by excessive inattention, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity
Hyperactivity
excessive restlessness and overactivity, a characteristic of ADHD
Stimulants
drugs that increase the activity of the nervous system
Learning Disabilities
disorders characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills
Dyslexia
a reading disorder characterized by letter reversals, mirror reading, slow reading, and reduced comprehension
Classroom Inclusion
placing children with disabilities in classrooms with children without disabilities
Concrete Operations
the third stage in Piaget’s scheme, characterized by flexible, reversible thought concerning tangible objects and events
Decentration
simultaneous focusing on more than one aspect or dimension of a problem or situation
Transitivity
the principle that if A>B and B>C, then A>C
Seriation
placing objects in an order or series according to a property or trait
Preconventional Level
according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgements are based largely on expectations of rewards or punishments
Conventional Level
according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgements largely reflect social rules and conventions
Postconventional Level
according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral judgements are derived from moral principles, and people look to themselves to set moral standards
Sensory Memory
the structure of memory first encountered by sensory input, information is maintained in sensory memory for only a fraction of a second
Short-Term Memory
the structure of memory that can hold a sensory stimulus for up to 30 seconds
Encode
to transform sensory input into a form that is more readily processed
Rehearsing
repetition that aids in recall
Long-Term Memory
the memory structure capable of relatively permanent storage of information
Elaborative Memory
a method for increasing retention of new information by relating it to well-known information
Metacognition
awareness of and control of one’s cognitive abilities
Metamemory
knowledge of the functions and processes involved in one’s storage and retrieval of information
Achievement
acquired competencies that are attained by one’s efforts and are presumed to be made possible by one’s abilities
Intelligence Quotient
a score on an intelligence test
Mental Age (MA)
the intellectual level at which a child is functioning
Chronological Age (CA)
a person’s actual age
Cultural Bias
a factor in intelligence tests that provides an advantage for test takers from certain cultural backgrounds
Culture-Free
descriptive of a test in which cultural biases have been removed
Cultural-Familial Developmental Challenges
substandard intellectual performance stemming from lack of opportunity to acquire knowledge and skills
Heritability
the degree to which the variations in a trait from one person to another can be attributed to genetic factors
Word-Recognition Method
a method for learning to read in which children come to recognize words through repeated exposure to them
Phonetic Method
a method for learning to read in which children decode the sounds of words based on their knowledge of the sounds of letters and letter combinations
Sight Vocabulary
words that are decoded but are immediately recognized because of familiarity with their overall shapes
Bilingual
using or capable of using two languages with equal or nearly equal facility
What is gender?
psychological and social associates and implication of biological sex
continuum
different from sex (biological, hormones, chromosomes, genitalia)
cisgender, transgender, gender diverse
What is gender role socialization?
sex segregation: preference for same-sex playmates
enabling style: foster equality and intimacy, girls
restrictive style: tends to derail the interaction, boys
stereotypical: first label (“boy” or “girl”), the identify “proper” toys and clothes, then describes activities, jobs, and personality traits as pertaining to “girls” or “boys”
What are biological approaches to gender development?
the role of hormones on play styles and toy preferences
What are social-cognitive explanations to gender development?
role of parenting in modeling behaviors and attitudes
reinforcement
gender role socialization
What is Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory on gender development?
gender identity: by age 2-3 children can say if they are a boy or a girl
gender stability: by age 3-4 children learn people retain their sexes for a lifetime
gender consistency: by age 5-7 children understand that the sex does not change with changes in dressing and behaviors
critique: does not explain gender and identity fluidity
What is the gender-schema theory?
children build gender schemes
can lead to “gender-appropriate” behaviors
risk: self esteem is tied to its conformity
schema of own gender is more developed
rigid in the beginning but will become more flexible with time
children do not need to develop gender constancy
What is gender-neutral parenting?
try to teach children to think critically of gender binaries and hierarchies
does not influence sexual orientation
does not force androgyny on children
What are height and weight changes in middle childhood?
slow but steady
5 to 8 cm and 2.25 to 3.0 kg per year
lots of individual variability: nutritional aspects, ethnic aspects, genetics, sex
What is brain development in middle childhood?
increases in the amount of myelin
increases speed of electrical impulses between neurons
sensory and motor areas of the brain (motor development)
reticular formation pathways to frontal lobes (selective attention, better attention control)
growth in frontal lobes, towards the end of middle childhood
lateralization of spatial perception/orientation
What is motor development in middle childhood?
gross motor skills: muscle coordination, strength and speed, coordination of vision and body movements, pathways between cerebellum and cortex become more myelinated
fine motor skills: maturation of wrist, school age skills
gender differences: girls are better coordinated, boys are stronger and faster
What are unintentional injuries?
the most common cause of death
motor vehicle (56%), drowning, falls, fire (6% each)
decrease in number of deaths and hospitalizations in the last years, but may be because children are watching more TV and playing outside more
What are the risk factors for development of unhealthy body weight?
overweight parents
large size for gestational age
early onset of being overweight
genetics
sedentary lifestyle
What are the health factors associated with unhealthy body weight?
diabetes
sleep apnea
cardiovascular disease
hypertension
What are the social emotional issues associated with unhealthy body weight?
low self-esteem
negative body image
depression
bullying target
What to do to fix unhealthy body weight?
provide healthy food
weight loss diets can be risky
pay attention to mealtime habits
make exercise fun and be an exercise role model, 60 minutes of moderate or vigorous physical activity
screen time should be less than 2 hours a day
do not emphasize body appearance
What is visual impairment?
blindness is legally defined as less than 20/200 after correction
see up close and disabilities in color, depth, an light perception
1 in 1000
What is auditory impairment?
1% to 2% of school-age children
abstract thinking may be affected
social interactions and academic performance can be hindered
What is speech impairment?
5% of school-age children
stuttering is most common
substantial disruption in the rhythm and fluency of speech
What is attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
more physically active, impulsive, and/or less attentive
more common in boys (3x)
5% to 12% of school age children
CTS and ADHD can overlap
genetic plus environmental risks
evolutionary: favorable to have energy and focus on many things when hunting
treatments involve: stimulants (dopamine and noradrenaline), cognitive behavioral therapy, parenting training
What is dyslexia?
reading disorder
affects phonological processing
difficulty in processing and remembering information
strong genetic component
independent of intelligence
treatment involves remediation: class accommodations, individual education plan
What is dysgraphia?
writing disorder
What is dyscalculia?
math reasoning difficulty
What is concrete operation?
powerful schemes involving mental processes
decentration, reversibility, transitivity, class inclusion
good with concrete concepts (but not with abstract)
can see and manipulate
are good at inductive logic
are NOT good at deductive logic
What is horizontal decalage?
operational schemes are acquired gradually
What is development in processing efficiency?
improvement in efficient use of short-term memory
true in cross-cultural studies too
What is acquisition of automaticity?
recall info from long term memory without using short-term memory capacities
achieved primarily through practice
What is expertise?
depends on quantity of information in long-term memory
What is development in selective attention?
able to ignore distractions and to attend to multiple aspects of a problem at once
What is development in metacognition?
problem solving strategizing
What is development in metamemory?
better use of strategies to store and retrieve information
rehearsal, mnemonic, elaborative strategy, organization
What is intelligence?
usually perceived as underlying learning ability
goal to predict academic performance
combination of nature and nurture: heritability around 40-60%, sex differences are better explained by environmental factors, changes in education and SES change test scores
certain stability after middle school
culturally based
What is intelligence quotient (IQ)?
Stanford-Binet intelligence scale: results compared to the norm
Wechsler intelligence scale for children: verbal and nonverbal tasks
below 70: intellectual disability, chromosomal abnormalities, genetic disorders, brain damage, impoverished home environment
above 130: gifted, combination of nature and nurture, heritability around 40-60%, sex differences are better explained by environmental factors, changes in education and SES change test scores
What is Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence?
analytical/componential: mental steps or “components” used to solve problems, “math smart”, logic
creative/experimental: use of experience in ways that foster insight
practical/contextual: ability to read and adapt to the contexts of everyday life
What is Cattell’s theory of intelligence?
fluid: information processing skills
crystalized: academic information in long term memory
What are Gardner’s multiple intelligences?
musical
bodily kinesthetic
logical mathematical
linguistic
spatial intelligence
interpersonal
intrapersonal
naturalist
What is Goleman’s emotional intelligence?
social awareness, relationship management, self-management, self-awareness
without emotional intelligence, one cannot achieve intellectual potential
little research support, but emotion regulation is related to academic achievement
What is language development in middle childhood?
vocabulary: 5,000 and 10,000 words a year, master relationship between word categories
grammar: passive sentences, tag sentences, sentence dependence
improvement in metalinguistic and pragmatic skills, children ask for clarification
literacy as key achievement: (whole) word-recognition/sight vocabulary, (phonological) phonetic method
What is the analytical learning style?
focus on details of a task
well organized
good at learning details
tends to think information in terms of right and wrong
What is the relational style of learning?
focus on big picture
general impression
pay more attention to information that they find interesting
What are methods of literacy development?
(whole) word recognition/sight vocabulary
(phonological) phonetic method
read familiar words using word-recognition
read new words using the phonetic method
What are the stages of reading development?
Stage 0: birth to the start of 1st grade (6 years), identification of letters, writing own name, reading/recognizing a few words
Stage 1: 1st and 2nd grades (6 to 7 years), largely phonological decoding skill, sound out words by blending the letters
Stage 2: 2nd and 3rd grades (7 to 8 years), read aloud with fluency, leaves little energy to process meaning
Stage 3: 4th to 8th grades (8 to 13 years), means to an end, depends on information being presented from single perspective
Stage 4: 13 years, reading as reflecting multiple points of view
Reciprocal Determinism?
the interplay between one’s personality, environment and behavior
Social Cognition
one’s understanding of the relationship between oneself and others
Co-regulation
a gradual transferring of control from parent to child, beginning in middle childhood
Skip-Generation Families
families whose grandparents parent the grandchildren with little or no help from their adult child
Peer Rejection
when children are rejected by their peers, divided into two groups
one is withdrawn-rejected; as they are disliked by their peers due to some perceived difference
the other is aggressive-rejected and these children are rejected due to aggressive disruptive behavior
Bullying
an act of intentional harm, repeated over time, in a relationship characterized by an imbalance in power
Bystanders
peers who watch a bullying episode take place but do not take part in the bullying, at least, initially
Cyberbullying
using some form of technology to bully and harass another person
Pygmalion Effect
a self-fulfilling prophecy, and expectation that is confirmed because of the behavior of those who hold the expectation
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
an event that occurs because of the behavior of those who expect it to occur
Sexism
discrimination or bias on the basis of a person’s sex
Serotonin
a neurotransmitter that is involved in mood disorders such as depression
Attributional Style
one’s disposition toward interpreting outcomes (successes or failures), as in tendency to place blame or responsibility an oneself or on external factors
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
an anxiety disorder in which anxiety appears to be present continuously and is unrelated to the situation
Phobias
irrational, excessive fears that interfere with one’s functioning
Seperation Anxiety Disorder
an extreme form of separation anxiety characterized by anxiety about separating from parents, SAD often takes the form of refusal to go to school
School Phobia
fear of attending school, marked by extreme anxiety at leaving parents
Conduct Disorders
disorders marked by persistent breaking of the rules and violations of the rights of others
What is Erikson’s psychosocial theory of industry vs. inferiority?
development of sense of competence through achievement of culturally defined goals
development of willingness to work to accomplish these goals
success brings sense of competence and mastery
failures bring sense of inadequacy, inferiority
What is Bandura’s social cognitive theory?
importance of modelling
children can regulate better their own behavior now, less dependent on external rewards and punishments
reciprocal determinism: interplay between personality, environment and behavior
self-efficacy: self-perceived competence
What are the big five personality traits?
openness
conscientiousness
extraversion
agreeableness
neuroticism
What is the development of psychological self in middle childhood?
less tied to physical features
more centered on feelings and ideas, also true for how children perceive other people
What is self-efficacy in middle childhood?
one’s belief in one’s capacity to make an intended event happen
based on social comparison: perception of others, perception of peers as similar (as models), own experience (most important)
What is valued-self in middle childhood?
people’s perspective of themselves as a valuable individual
What is self esteem in middle childhood?
internal model
individual overall and specific self-evaluation
evaluation of own abilities becomes compartmentalized
based on child’s mental comparison of her ideal and actual self/experiences, if discrepant, will lead to low self-esteem, dependent on cultural background
based on how child perceives her acceptance by her family and peers
certain stability because of confirmation bias
What is moral realism in Piaget’s two-stage theory of moral development?
rules cannot be changed
rule violations result in punishment
What is moral relativism in Piaget’s two-stage theory of moral development?
people can agree to change rules
rule violations only result in punishment if the person is caught misbehaving
appreciate the relationship between intention and punishment, but still a bit egocentric
What is Kohlberg’s theory of preconventional morality (early childhood)?
follow unvarying rules based on rewards and punishments
What is Kohlberg’s theory of conventional morality (middle childhood)?
follow society conventions for good and bad
What is Kohlberg’s theory of postconventional morality (adolescents and adults)?
follow personal and universal standards
not everyone reaches these highest stages
What are some critiques to Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?
does not generalize to non-Western culture
does not accurately explain girls development
What is Gilligan’s theory of moral development?
boys: justice and fairness
girls: responsibility, compassion, sacrifice for relationships
What are the stages of moral development in girls according to Gilligan?
orientation toward individual survival
concentrate on what is practical and best for oneself, gradually transitioning from selfishness to responsibility
goodness as self-sacrifice
one must sacrifice own wishes to what others want
morality of nonviolence, balance between ones own needs and care for others
What are critiques of Gilligan’s’ theory of moral development?
some studies do not find gender differences
What is co-regulation in the parent-child relationship?
slow transition of locus of control from parent to child
parent and child jointly control the child’s behavior
What is the parent-child relationship in middle childhood?
children start spending less time with their parents
evaluate parents more harshly due to new cognitive skills
but parents remain child’s major influence and source of emotional support
What are sex differences in the parent-child relationship?
parents expectations and self-regulation
What are skip-generation families?
grandparents are mainly in charge of raising the child
South Asia and indigenous communities
working parents and delinquency
What is the impact of same-sex parents on the parent-child relationship?
psychological adjustment and sexual orientation comparable with that of children of heterosexual parents
what matters most is child’s relationship to caregivers
What is the impact of divorce on the parent-child relationship?
financial strain
after a couple of years children tend to rebound
long-term consequences in middle-childhood
difficult to study sole impact
What is the impact of step-parents and blended families on the parent-child relationship?
role ambiguity
importance of supporting “biological” parent and acting as authoritative figure
What are peer relationships in middle childhood?
increasing importance of peers
best friendships emerge: more likely to have positive relationships
friendship is seen as more than “playing together”
What is gender self-segregation in peer relationships?
boys: large groups, more focus on competition, more outdoors activities
girls: smaller groups, more focus on self-disclosure and agreement, more indoor activities
both show collaborative and cooperative exchanges
unrelated to sex differences in parenting
What are benefits of peer relationships?
information about the world/people and intellectual growth
emotional support and control
communication and practice of relationship skills
What is peer rejection?
withdrawn-rejected: perceived to be different in some way
aggressive-rejected: disruptive and uncooperative externalizing behaviors
What are aggression patterns?
intergenerational transfer of risk for aggression and social disadvantages
relational vs. physical: sex differences
becomes less direct and more indirect
retaliatory: increases with understanding of intentionality
low socioeconomic standing
What is bullying?
intent to harm, repeated behavior, imbalance of power, victim’s distress
What are consequences of bullying?
victim: mental health issues, somatization, school refusal
bully: conduct disorder, aggressive behavior, academic problems
What are interventions in bullying?
jigsaw classroom: empathy and perspective-taking
roots of empathy program: increase in social and emotional knowledge, decrease in aggression, increase in prosocial behavior, lasting results
What is cyberbullying?
can last longer and achieve a bigger “public”
can be “easier” because it is not face-to-face
What are teacher-child relationships?
Pygmalion effect: self-fulfilling prophecy
sexism in the classroom: boys call out is accepted, girls should behave in a ladylike manner
classroom climate: impact on achievement
What is childhood depression?
5-9% of children (boys and girls) are seriously depressed
symptoms are not the same as in adults
What are symptoms of childhood depression?
physical complaints
anxiety
withdrawal from social activity
academic problems
hopeless
helplessness
What are causes of childhood depression?
genetic factors and neurotransmitters
attributional status: blame themselves for everything
nutritional effects: red meat and processed foods are associated with greater risk
What is the treatment of childhood depression?
psychotherapy (CBT, emotion-focus family therapy)
medication is controversial as might be related to suicidal thoughts
What is separation anxiety disorder?
becomes an issue when interferes with normal life
3-5% of children in Canada
symptoms: fear of being alone, physical complaints, nightmares, school refusal
treatments: cognitive-behavioral strategies to cope with anxiety, medication is controversial as may be related to suicidal thoughts
What are conduct disorders?
persistently break rules or violate rights of others
attributional status: blame other people for their issues
low tolerance for frustrations
2-9% of population
more common in boys, childhood (more serious) and adolescence-onset
What are causes of conduct disorders?
genetic component
parental overindulgence or insensitivity to child’s behavior
inconsistent discipline
physical punishment
abuse
family stress
trauma
deviant peers
antisocial family members
What are treatments for conduct disorders?
cognitive-behavioral techniques involving parenting training
