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PSYCH 223 > Infancy > Flashcards

Infancy Flashcards

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1
Q

Differentiation

A

the process by which behaviors and physical structures become specialized

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2
Q

Failure to Thrive (FTT)

A

a disorder of infancy and early childhood characterized by variable eating and inadequate gains in weight

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3
Q

Canalization

A

the tendency of growth rates to return to normal after undergoing environmentally induced change

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4
Q

Micronutrients

A

nutrients required in small doses, such as vitamins and mineral that are required for physical growth

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5
Q

Macronutrients

A

nutrients required in large quantities, such as protein, carbohydrates and fat, that are responsible for physical growth

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6
Q

Palmar Grasp

A

grasping objects between the fingers and the palm

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7
Q

Pincer Grasp

A

grasping objects between the finger and thumb

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8
Q

Habituation

A

becoming used to a stimulus and therefore paying less attention to it

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9
Q

Schema

A

a mental structure that categorizes information based on similarity

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10
Q

Assimilation

A

new information is added to an existing schema

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11
Q

Accommodation

A

new information must be modified to fit an existing schema as new information is acquired

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12
Q

Primary Circular Reactions

A

the repetition of actions that first occurred by chance and that focus on the infant’s own body

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13
Q

Secondary Circular Reactions

A

the repetition of actions that produce an effect on the environment

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14
Q

Tertiary Circular Reactions

A

the purposeful adaptation of established schemas to new situations

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15
Q

Object Permanence

A

recognition that objects continue to exist when they are not in view

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16
Q

Deferred Imitation

A

imitation of a behavior that was seen earlier

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17
Q

Visual Recognition Memory

A

the kind of memory shown in infant’s ability to discriminate previously seen objects from novel objects

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18
Q

What are the physical changes of babies in infancy?

A

apart from prenatal development, the period with the greatest physical changes

babies grow 25 to 30 cm and triple their body weight in the first year, follows increased sleeping time, growth spurts overnight

failure to thrive syndrome: hard time gaining weight
canalization: after a period of non-growth they catch up quickly

differentiation: physical reactions become less global and more specific

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19
Q

What does brain development look like in infancy?

A

synaptogenesis: happens in spurts

brain is less efficient, but has greater plasticity
reflexes aren’t as quick because of less myelination

synaptic pruning: “use it or lose it”, if connections aren’t made they will never develop

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20
Q

What does sleep look like in infancy?

A

states of consciousness (cyclical): deep sleep, lighter sleep, awake, fussiness, drowsiness

by 6 months develops clearer nighttime sleep and napping patterns

cultural differences: western cultures focused on babies sleeping through the night, other cultures don’t enforce it

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21
Q

How do bones develop throughout infancy?

A

change in size, number and composition

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22
Q

How do muscles develop throughout infancy?

A

high ratio of water at birth, high proportion of fat in newborns

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23
Q

How do lungs develop throughout infancy?

A

increase in efficiency

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24
Q

How do heart develop throughout infancy?

A

increase in muscle strength

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25
Q

How do gross motor (locomotor) skills develop throughout infancy?

A

3 months: rolling over
6 months: moving
7 months: sitting without support
8 months: standing while holding
8 to 9 months: crawling
11 months: standing alone
12 to 15 months: walking
17 months: walking up steps
24 months: jumping in place

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26
Q

How do fine motor (manipulative) skills develop throughout infancy?

A

3 months: opens hand prominently
3 months: grasps rattle
8 months: grasps with thumb and finger
11 months: hold crayon adaptively
14 months: builds tower of two cubes
16 months: places peg in board
24 months: imitates strokes on paper

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27
Q

How do non-locomotor skills develop throughout infancy?

A

1 month: follows slowly moving objects, lifts head slightly
2 to 3 months: lifts head up to 90 degrees
4 to 6 months: holds head while sitting
10 to 12 months: squats and stops, plays patty cake
13 to 18 months: rolls balls, claps
19 to 24 months: jump with both feet

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28
Q

How does breastfeeding impact development?

A

lower risk for chronic disease

better gut microbiota and immune system function

only breastfeed up to 6 months, after 6 months can introduce solids

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29
Q

How does malnutrition impact development?

A

affects all areas if development

macronutrients: carbs, fats, proteins
micronutrients: vitamins and minerals

indigenous populations are more vulnerable

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30
Q

How does healthcare impact development?

A

regular medical check-ups

high incidence of respiratory diseases (>50%)

higher infant mortality among indigenous peoples, lower income families, families in remote areas

vaccination starting at 2 months in Canada

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31
Q

How do we know what the baby knows?

A

habituation: get used to a stimulus over time, shows learning

preference technique: show two images and see preference

operant conditioning: associate one stimulus with another

event-related potential (ERP), parent report

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32
Q

How does vision develop in infancy?

A

visual acuity: from 40 to 8 times worse than adults by 6 months, fully developed by 7 years

peripheral vision: by 6 months is about adult level

tracking: poor at birth, improves around 6 to 10 weeks

depth perception: develops from 3 to 9 months

preferences: look longer at complex patterns/pictures, like looking at faces because they are complex

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33
Q

How does hearing develop in infancy?

A

auditory acuity: almost as good as adults, high-pitched sounds need to be louder to be heard by infants, in general improves up to adolescence

sound location: can somewhat judge general direction, reach adult-level by 18 months

“universal citizens” at birth, discriminate individual voices, pay attention and respond to sound patterns

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34
Q

How does smelling and tasting develop in infancy?

A

intrinsically related

infants relate to unpleasant tastes and smells from birth

infants have an innate sweet tooth, possibly because of the evolutionary survival advantage of preferring sweets

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35
Q

How does touch develop in infancy?

A

best developed sense

responsive to gentle social touch, very important for early brain development

infants experience pain, reactions are slower earlier on

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36
Q

How do sensory and perceptual skills develop in infancy?

A

intermodal perception: starts at 1 month, becomes common by 6 months, from earliest days can identify mother by sight, smell, or sound

interaction of inborn and experiential factors: both nature and nurture play a role

infants slowly move from a passive to an active role

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37
Q

What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development?

A

intelligence: adaptation to your environment

schemes: mental structures that categorizes information based on similarity

equilibration: assimilation plus accommodation

universal and fixed sequence

emphasis in qualitative changes

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38
Q

What are the stages of Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage?

A

simple reflexes
primary circular reactions
secondary circular reactions
coordination of circular reactions
tertiary circular reactions
beginning of thought/mental representation

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39
Q

What is the simple reflexes stage of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage?

A

accommodate reflexes and adapt

0-1 month

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40
Q

What is the primary circular reactions stage of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage?

A

whatever gives them pleasure in their own body

1-4 months

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41
Q

What is the secondary circular reactions stage of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage?

A

will discover something in their environment that they really like

4-8 months

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42
Q

What is the coordination of circular reactions stage of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage?

A

coordinate two secondary schemes, sometimes to reach a goal

8-12 months

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43
Q

What is the tertiary circular reactions stage of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage?

A

experiment with the environment, don’t know what the outcome is going to be

12-18 months

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44
Q

What is the beginnings of thought/mental representation stage of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage?

A

transition from sensorimotor stage to preoperational stage, language starts to develop

18-24 months

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45
Q

What are the stages of Piaget’s object permanence?

A
  1. absence
  2. rudimentary
  3. look for partially hidden objects
  4. look for hidden objects
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46
Q

What are Piaget’s imitation stages?

A
  1. absence of imitation
  2. parodic imitation
  3. beginnings of systematic imitation of visible movements and sounds that are already part of the infant’s repertoire
  4. imitation of movements that are part of the infant’s repertoire but which are not visible to him/her, and imitation of novel sounds
  5. imitation of new models invisible to the child
  6. beginnings of representative and deferred imitation
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47
Q

What are some critiques to Piaget’s theories?

A

emphasis on maturation: adult and peer pressure influences are not discussed

underestimate infants’ competence: object permanence and deferred imitation

not tied to discrete stages: development is more gradual

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48
Q

How does memory develop through infancy?

A

3 month old’s can remember actions and specific objects after a week, strongly tied to context, very specific

memory capacity increases in infancy: 6 month old’s can remember actions/objects after two weeks

infantile amnesia: babies forget what happens in the first two years of life

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49
Q

Attachment

A

an affectional bond characterized by seeking closeness with another when distressed, especially after separation

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50
Q

Separation Anxiety

A

fear of separation from an attachment figure

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51
Q

Contact Comfort

A

the pleasure derived from physical contact with another

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52
Q

Ethologists

A

scientists who study the behavior patterns characteristic of various species

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53
Q

Social Smile

A

a smile that occurs in response to a human voice or face

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54
Q

Critical Period

A

a period during which imprinting can occur

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55
Q

Imprinting

A

the process by which waterfowl become attached to the first moving object they follow

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56
Q

Pre-Attachment Phase

A

lasts from birth to 6 weeks, characterized by random attachment

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57
Q

Attachment-In-The-Making Phase

A

occurs from 6 weeks to 6 months, characterized by preference for familiar figures

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58
Q

Clear-Cut-Attachment Phase

A

occurs from 6 to 7 months and lasts until 18 to 24 months, characterized by dependence on the primary caregiver, usually the mother

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59
Q

Formation of Reciprocal Relationships

A

occurs from 18 months to 2 years and beyond, characterized by awareness of factors that predict the parent’s return

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60
Q

Internal Working Model

A

a set of expectations and beliefs about the self, others, and the relationship between self and others

61
Q

Secure Attachment

A

a type of attachment characterized by mild distress when a caregiver leaves and being readily soothed by reunion

62
Q

Avoidant Attachment

A

a type of insecure attachment characterized by apparent indifference to leave-takings by the reunions with an attachment

63
Q

Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment

A

a type of insecure attachment characterized by severe distress at the caregiver’s departure and ambivalent behavior at reunions

64
Q

Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment

A

a type of insecure attachment characterized by dazed and contradictory behaviors toward an attachment figure

65
Q

Reactive Attachment Disorder

A

characterized as disturbed or inappropriate social interactions across a number of social situations, developed before the age of 5 years

66
Q

Prototype Hypothesis

A

the belief that the initial relationship between child and caregiver serves as the foundation of all other relationships, including romantic ones

67
Q

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASDs)

A

developmental disorders characterized by impairment in social communication and social interaction across various contexts, and by repetitive, stereotyped behavior

68
Q

Mutism

A

refusal to speak

69
Q

Echolalia

A

automatic repetitions of sounds or words

70
Q

Social Referencing

A

using another person’s reaction to a situation to form one’s own response

71
Q

Emotional Regulation

A

techniques for controlling ones emotional states

72
Q

Separation-Individuation

A

the process of becoming separate from and independent of the mother

73
Q

Temperament

A

individual difference in style of reaction, which is present early in life

74
Q

Goodness of Fit

A

agreement between the parents’ expectations of a child and the child’s temperament

75
Q

Sex

A

a way of classifying individuals usually as male or female, due to a combination of biological and physiological features

76
Q

Intersex

A

individuals who are born with variation to their chromosomes or genitals such that their sex does not match binary notions of male or female

77
Q

Gender

A

cultural view of what it means to be masculine or feminine according to one’s sex

78
Q

What are the Bayley scales of infant and toddler development?

A

neurological functioning between 1 and 42 months

cognitive, language, motor skills

test for comparison to cultural norms, different for every country

79
Q

What is the Fagan test of infant intelligence?

A

habituation: pay more attention to new stimuli

information processing: will habituate faster

visual recognition memory

80
Q

What is infant directed speech or motherese?

A

prosody and pitch
repetition/recasting
structure
impact on infant language development: attention grabber, segmentation of speech sounds, grammar and syntax, vocabulary

81
Q

What does language look like in babies from birth to 3 months?

A

crying, cooing, etc.
discriminate sounds of all languages

82
Q

What does language look like in babies from 4 to 6 months?

A

start to take turns and establishing expectations

83
Q

What does language look like in babies from 6 to 8 months?

A

canonical babbling
recognize words within sentences

84
Q

What does language look like in babies from 9 to 12 months?

A

“culture-bound” listeners
variegated babbling
intentionality understanding
meaningful gestures

85
Q

What does language look like in babies from 12 to 18 months?

A

blame assignment “that’s the ___”
first one word utterances
halo phrases: “birdie” + pointing
overextension

86
Q

What does language look like in babies from 18 to 24 months?

A

first multi-word utterances
one-word utterances combinations: “ball table” or “table ball”
telegraphic speech: “baby out” not “out baby”
pivot schemas: “apple gone”, “mama gone”, “___ gone”
item-based constructions: “I gained apples” but not “I liked apples”

87
Q

What is receptive vocabulary?

A

everything baby understands

88
Q

What is expressive vocabulary?

A

everything baby can say
more nouns than verbs
vocabulary spurt
naming explosion

89
Q

What is referential style?

A

naming things all the time
first born

90
Q

What is expressive style?

A

hello, goodbye, goodnight
cultural differences
second born

91
Q

What is bilingualism?

A

better metalinguistic skills
buffer against onset of Alzheimer and dementia
better executive functioning

92
Q

What are the social pragmatic and usage-based theories?

A

general mechanisms: intention-reading, pattern-finding, role-reversed imitation

joint attention scenes: overall communicative intention/function, social pragmatic information (gestures, facial expressions, looking, intonation of speech, objects in the surrounding environment)

93
Q

What is Erikson’s Psychosocial Development stage of trust vs. mistrust?

A

from birth to 18 months

sense that caregivers are reliable and predictable

depend on how well needs are met

goes beyond nursing, talking and comforting is also important

trust: sense of hope, feel like needs can be fulfilled
mistrust: difficulty in forming bonds, see world as harsh and unfriendly

94
Q

What is Bowlby’s Definition of Attachment Theory?

A

an emotional tie that someone forms with someone else

a predisposition to intermittently seek proximity to the object of attachment

internal working model

borrows the idea of critical period from ethology: imprinting in goslings, in humans it takes 36 months

95
Q

What are Bowlby’s stages of attachment?

A

Phase 1: 0 to 12 weeks, orientation/signals without discrimination of a figure

Phase 2: 3 to 6 weeks, orientation/signals directed towards discriminated figures

Phase 3: 6 months to 3 years, maintenance of proximity to a discriminated figure

Phase 4: 3 years on, goal-corrected partnership, transactional objects

96
Q

What are secure attachment patterns?

A

proximity seeking
contact maintaining

97
Q

What are insecure attachment styles?

A

anxious-ambivalent: contact-resisting, mad at mom but wants her

anxious-avoidant: proximity-avoiding, mad at mom, ignores mom

disorganized: no pattern

98
Q

What is reactive attachment disorder?

A

no bond due to appropriate social interactions

99
Q

What is the role of the primary caregiver in developing a secure attachment with the child?

A

be sensitive to infant’s needs, be aware of the infant’s moods, provide appropriate responses, tactile responsiveness, interactional synchrony

100
Q

What are “easy babies”?

A

positive disposition
body functions operate regularly

101
Q

What are “difficult babies”?

A

negative moods, slow to adapt to new situations
withdraw from new situations

102
Q

What are “slow to warm up babies”?

A

inactive, relatively calm reactions to environment
moods are generally negative
withdraw from new situations, adapting slowly

103
Q

What are the key dimensions that determine temperament profile in an infant?

A

activity level
approach/positive
emotionality/sociability
inhibition and anxiety
negative emotionality/irritability/anger
effortful control/task persistence
strong gene factor and certain stability

104
Q

What is autism spectrum disorder?

A

it’s a continuum of severity in communication skills and social interactions impairments

despite their difficulties with synchrony, most infants with ASDs are securely attached to their caregivers

105
Q

What are some possible causes of autism spectrum disorder?

A

neonatal environment: what kind of hormones and nutrition baby receives in the womb

genetics, parent’s age, low-birth weight

abnormal sensitivity to some neurotransmitters

106
Q

What is the subjective self?

A

infants awareness they are a separate person that can act on their own environment
has fully emerged around 8 to 12 months

107
Q

What is the objective/categorical self?

A

understanding that the “self” also has qualities/properties (eg. gender, shyness)
developed between 18 and 24 months

108
Q

What is the emotional self?

A

perception and understanding of other’s and own emotions starting in the first months of life
self-conscious emotional expressions emerge by end of infancy

109
Q

What is awareness of intentions?

A

understanding that other people have “minds” of their own
develops through infancy and early childhood

110
Q

How does childcare impact infancy?

A

impact on child development is difficult to study, too many variables to disentangle
quality of care (richness of environment, ratio of caregivers to children) and parental satisfaction with situation (working or at home) matters the most

111
Q

How does childcare impact attachment?

A

insecurity can be intensified if coupled with insensitive mothering
for the most part it does not

112
Q

How does childcare impact socio-emotional development?

A

number of hours spent in daycare is related to externalizing behaviours

more peer orientated, play at higher levels, more likely to share

113
Q

What are the sex differences in development?

A

some differences in motor skills but minimal when it comes to cognitive and social abilities

boy tend to be more active and fussier than girls
girls achieve language and fine motor skills milestones earlier than boys

114
Q

What are sex differences in preferences?

A

some differences in preference for toy and play activities
genetic/nature or socialization/nurture?
mothers spend more time with daughters and fathers with sons
by 2 years of age, infants are aware of gender-appropriate behaviors in their culture

115
Q

Vaccines

A

a small amount of dead or weakened germs that, when taken in by an infant’s body, allows the immune system to protect itself against the disease by creating antibodies

116
Q

Neurons

A

cells in the nervous system that transmit messages

117
Q

Dendrites

A

rootlike parts of neurons that receive impulses from other neurons

118
Q

Axon

A

a long, thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons through branching structures called axon terminals

119
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

chemicals that transmit neural impulses across a synapse from one neuron to another

120
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

a fatty, whitish substance that encases and insulates axons

121
Q

Myelination

A

the coating of axons with myelin

122
Q

Multiple Sclerosis

A

a disorder in which hard fibrous tissue replaces myelin, impeding neural transmission

123
Q

Medulla

A

an area of the hindbrain involved in heartbeat and respiration

124
Q

Crerbellum

A

the part of the hindbrain involved in coordination and balance

125
Q

Cerebrum

A

the part of the brain responsible for learning, thought, memory, language, and muscle control

126
Q

Plasticity

A

the ability of the brain to compensate for injuries in particular areas by developing new neural pathways

127
Q

Toddler

A

child who walks with short, uncertain steps

128
Q

Prelinguistic

A

vocalizations made by the infant before the use of language

129
Q

Cooing

A

prelinguistic vowel-like sounds that reflect feelings of positive excitement

130
Q

Babbling

A

the child’s first vocalizations that have the sounds of speech

131
Q

Echolalia

A

the automatic repetition of sounds or words

132
Q

Intonation

A

the use of pitches of varying levels to help communicate meaning

133
Q

Receptive Vocabulary

A

the number of words a person understands

134
Q

Expressive Vocabulary

A

the number of words a person can use in the production of language

135
Q

Referential Language Style

A

use of language primarily as a means of labelling objects

136
Q

Expressive Language Style

A

use of language primarily as a means of engaging in social interaction

137
Q

Overextension

A

use of words in situations in which their meanings become extended

138
Q

Holophrase

A

a single word that is used to express complex meanings

139
Q

Telegraphic Speech

A

type of speech in which only the essential words are used

140
Q

Syntax

A

the language rules for placing words in an order to form sentences

141
Q

Models

A

in learning theory, those whose behaviors are imitated by others

142
Q

Extinction

A

decrease in the frequency of a response due to the absence of reinforcement

143
Q

Shaping

A

gradual building of complex behavior by reinforcing successive approximations to the target behavior

144
Q

Sensitive Period

A

the period from about 18 months to puberty when the brain is especially capable of learning language

145
Q

Physical Abuse

A

any type of deliberate force that leads to non-accidental injury to any part of the body

146
Q

Sexual Abuse

A

the molestation or exploitation of a child

147
Q

Emotional Abuse

A

verbal abuse or inadequate attention

148
Q

Neglect

A

failing to supervise a child, which may result in the child receiving injury

PSYCH 223 (10 decks)

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