Adolescence Flashcards
Puberty
the biological stage development characterized by physiological and cognitive changes that are associated with reproduction
Feedback Loop
a system in which glands regulate each other’s functioning through a series of hormonal messages
Primary Sex Characteristics
the structures that make reproduction possible
Secondary Sex Characteristics
physical indicators of sexual maturation, such as changes to the voice and growth of body hair, that do not directly involve reproductive structures
Asynchronous Growth
imbalanced growth, such as the growth that occurs during the early part of adolescence and causes many adolescents to appear gawky
Secular Trend
a historical trend toward increasing adult height and earlier puberty
Semen
the fluid that contains sperms and substances that nourish and help transport sperm
Nocturnal Emission
emission of seminal fluid while asleep
Gynecomastia
enlargement of breast tissue in males
Epiphyseal Closure
the process by which the cartilage that separates the long end of a bone from the main part of the bone turns to bone
Menarche
the onset of menstruation
Anorexia Nervosa
an eating disorder characterized by irrational fear of weight gain, distorted body image, and severe weight loss
Osteoporosis
a condition involving progressive loss of bone tissue
Bulimia Nervosa
an eating disorder characterized by cycles of binge eating and vomiting as a means of controlling weight gain
Formal Operations
the fourth stage in Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory, characterized by the capacity of for flexible, reversible operations concerning abstract ideas and concepts, such as symbols, statements and theories
Imaginary Audience
the belief that others around us are as concerned with our thoughts, appearance and behaviors as we are, one aspect of adolescent egocentrism
Personal Fable
the belief that our feelings and ideas are special and unique and that we are invulnerable, one aspect of adolescent egocentrism
Postconventional Level
according to Kohlberg, a period of during which moral judgements are derived from moral principles and people look to themselves to set moral standards
Ego Identity
according to Erikson, individual’s sense of who they are and what they stand for
Psychological Moratorium
a time-out period when adolescents experiment with different roles, values, beliefs and relationships
Identity Crisis
a turning point in development during which people examine their values and makes decisions about life roles
Identity Diffusion
an identity status that characterizes those who are non-committal to specific beliefs and who are not in the process of exploring alternatives
Foreclosure
an identity status that characterizes those who have made commitments without considering alternatives
Moratorium
an identity status that characterizes those who are actively exploring alternatives in an attempt to form an identity
Identity Achievement
an identity status that characterizes those who have explored alternatives and have developed commitments
Ethnic Identity
a sense of belonging to an ethnic group
Unexamined Ethnic Identity
the first stage of ethnic identity development, similar to the diffusion or foreclosure identity statuses
Ethnic Identity Search
the second stage of ethnic identity development, similar to the moratorium identity status
Achieved Ethnic Identity
the final stage of ethnic identity development, similar to the identity achievement status
Clique
a group of five to ten individuals who may be exclusive to others, and who share activities and confidences
Crowd
a large, loosely organized group of people who may or may not spend much time together and who are identified by the activities of the group
Masturbation
sexual self-stimulation
Youth In Conflict With The Law
a child or adolescent whose behavior us characterized by illegal activities
What is puberty in adolescence?
seen and unseen changes related to reproductive maturity
hypothalamus signals pituitary that signals other glands to produce androgens or estrogens
What are the characteristics of growth spurts in adolescence?
5 to 13 cm a years
lots of iron and calcium
peak around 2 years after start of puberty
asynchronous: principles are reversed
weight lags height: get taller before weight is gained
What is early maturation in adolescence?
generally positive for boys, but rushed into maturity, adults might request different behavior for them
often difficult for girls, greater risk for psychological health, depression, anxiety, guilt, might get sexual invitations, weight gain
the hardest for LGBTQ2S+ (social pressures)
What is late maturation in adolescence?
often difficult for boys (everyone looks taller and stronger)
girls: negative at first, but positive later (they are slender)
What factors impact body image?
cultural norms
peers
timing
What is brain development in adolescence?
dramatic change in grey matter volume (size and complexity of neurons, not number)
steady increase in white matter (frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital, corpus callosum, Wernicke’s and Broca’s area)
limbic system flourishes while prefrontal cortex develops slowly
What is the development of the skeletal system in adolescence?
shape of jaws change once baby teeth are lost
What is motor development in adolescence?
girls are better coordinated
boys catch up by the end of adolescence
What is the development of the muscular system in adolescence?
muscles become thicker and denser
more pronounced in boys
bodies start to differentiate
proportion of fat raises among girls
What is the development of the heart and lungs in adolescence?
increase in lung size, heart rate drops
more pronounced in boys
What are daily guidelines in adolescence?
high physical activity (60 minutes) ~ 24%
low recreational screen time (less than two hours) ~ 28%
sufficient sleep (8 to 10 hours) ~ 68%
What are the risk factors of early sexual intercourse?
early menarche
less physical activities
peer influence
sexual abuse
What are the characteristics of exposure to pornography in adolescence?
compulsive behaviors
earlier sexual activity
more sexual partners and casual sex (more exposure to STIs)
alcohol and drug consumption with sex
sexual aggression toward women
What are sexually transmitted infections (STIs)?
chlamydia: PID, ectopic pregnancy, infertility, genital/urinary disorders in boys, most common in young Canadians
gonorrhea, genital warts, genital herpes, syphilis, and HIV
HPV: skin and genital warts, pre-cancerous lesions leading to certain types of cancer, 75% of Canadians had at least one HPV infection in their lives, vaccines are available
What is sexual education?
should tackle information, motivation, and behavioral skills
help them apply the information
talking about sex does not motivate teens to become sexually active
What are the risk factors of teenage pregnancy?
failure to use (and/or access) contraception, and little advice
intergenerational pattern: single mom, lower income/education
7x higher among indigenous adolescents
What are the consequences of teenage pregnancy?
medical complications
less likely to graduate high school
less likely of moving to post-secondary education
lower income
need more public assistance
face rejection from peers
What factors affect health in adolescence?
sensation-seeking: risk factors include permissive parents, not involved in extracurricular activities, popularity is important, lack of maturity in the prefrontal cortex
death and injuries: unintentional injuries, twice as great for male adolescents
nutrition: irregular eating patterns, diabetes, heart diseases
alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs: stress, emotional pain, parenting styles, peer influence, sensation-seeking, impulsiveness
What is bulimia?
concern about weight gain
binging eating and purging (throw up, laxatives, over-exercising)
lowered body temperature, hair loss, tooth decay, stomach irritation
What is anorexia nervosa?
body image distorted
extreme dieting and exercise, fear of weight gain
sleep disturbance, cessation of menstruation, insensitivity to pain, hair loss, low blood pressure, cardiovascular problems, reduced body temperature, osteoporosis
4-18% starve to death
What are risk factors of eating disorders?
biological causes, e.g. brain dysfunction and heredity
fear of growing up (Freud)
discrepancy between perceived and ideal body image
society/cultural emphasis on thinness
unhealthy mental tendency to thought disotrtion
What are the challenges and treatments of eating disorders?
do not want to be treated
CBT
interpersonal psychotherapy
12-step programs
group counselling
What is depression in adolescence?
more common in girls/women
25% of women between 16-19 years
risk factors: genetic factor, family stressors, time in social media
vicious cycle with education underachievement and low self-esteem
tend to remember more negative information than positive
SSRIs are not recommended: suicidal ideation
What is suicide in adolescence?
second leading cause of death for Canadian between 15 and 19 years
more common in boys/men but girls/women attempt more
rate among Canadian indigenous youth are among the highest in the world
contributing factors: stressful event, altered mental state, opportunity, personality disorder, behavioral problems, family history
prevention strategies: education, social awareness, coping strategies
What are youth in conflict with the law?
children and adolescents that engage in illicit activities (has steadily fallen in Canada)
increase during adolescence in many societies
extrajudicial measures whenever possible: restorative justice, engagement in community programs and sports, increase in self-esteem, sense of competence, empowerment, and connectedness, development of life skills and character, community healing
risk factors: socio-economic deprivation, family poverty, lack of parental supervision
What is Piaget’s formal operational stage?
logical reasoning about abstract concepts
systematic problem solving: methodical search for a problem’s answer, test hypothesis by isolating one variable at a time
hypothetic-deductive reasoning: “what might be”, naïve idealism, think about what to do before actually doing it
sophisticated use of symbols: can understand metaphors and are more creative
What are critiques of Piaget’s formal operational stage?
not everyone achieves this stage, it’s culturally bounded
underestimation of the age when one achieves this stage
it’s not the epitome of thinking
What is hypothetical-deductive reasoning?
adolescent egocentrism: experiences, feelings, beliefs, thought are unique
imaginary audience: internalized set of behavioral standards generalized from peers, they are the focus of everyone’s attention, now they face real consequences of their actions and better understand consequences for violating social norms
personal fable: mentally constructed autobiography, they feel invulnerable
What is the development of metacognition, metamemory, and strategy use?
gradual transformation in the capacities of taking in, using, and storing information
thought is better organized
perceptual abilities and sorting of information are more advanced
development of strategies to deal with new situations
increased memory capacity
text learning: ability to summarize texts improves gradually
What are task goals?
more competent at somethings
sense of personal control and positive attitude towards school
success and failure attribute to own effort
What are ability goals?
better than someone else
more influenced by peer groups
success and failure attributed to outside influences
What are the risk factors associated with dropping out of school?
parents with lower education level
lone-parent and low-income families
less involved in extracellular activities
hard to “fit in”
skipping classes
indigenous groups has lowest rates of school completion across Canada
What are the long-term consequences of dropping out of school?
unemployment
lower income
more likely to resort to criminal behavior and substance abuse
What are strategies to prevent dropping out of school?
need to provide curriculum and instruction that is personally and culturally relevant, and that builds on student’s aptitudes and interests
What is the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)?
65 nations, Canadian 15-year-olds perform among the highest
girls perform better in reading skills
boys perform better in math
no significant difference in science
What are sex differences in verbal ability?
reading, comprehension, grammar, spelling, fluency
females surpass males from early on in infancy
What are sex differences in visual-spatial ability?
visualize and mentally manipulate objects
boys start to outperform girls during middle childhood
can stereotyped toys explain?
What are sex differences in mathematical ability?
standardized tests
no sex differences between grade 2 (~7 years) and grade 11 (~16 years)
What are the pros of working as a teen?
less than 10 hours a week
develops a sense of efficacy, competence, responsibility, discipline, and value of money
acquires positive work habits
enhances occupational aspirations
What are cons of working as a teen?
more than 13 hours a week
higher level of stress and psychological issues
illegal behavior and substance abuse
lower self-esteem and academic performance
What is Holland’s career typology?
realistic: engineering, farming
investigative: professors, researchers
artistic: visual/performing arts
social: counselling, teachers
enterprising: business owner
conventional: accounting, banking
What is Erikson’s psychosocial theory?
identity versus role confusion
psychological moratorium: a new identity must be forged (test and try different things)
identity crisis: confusion about the new role choices, merge individual identity with group
if no suitable identity is found: dysfunctional path, sense of self is diffuse, withdrawal and isolation, peer immersion
if conflict is solved: acceptable sense of self, identity appropriate roles in life
What are critiques of Erikson’s theories?
male oriented
merge of stages: identity vs. role confusion + intimacy vs. isolation
What are critiques of Marcia’s theories?
adolescence is only one period of identity formation
periods of stability and instability throughout lifespan
identity formation is dependent on cognitive development
What are Marcia’s identity statuses?
identity achievement status, crisis is past (high commitment, high crisis)
moratorium status, in midst of crisis (low commitment, high crisis)
foreclosure status (high commitment, low crisis)
identity diffusion status (low commitment, low crisis)
What makes adolescence a special period?
maturity in four areas: cognitive, sexual, moral, physical
What is Kohlberg’s moral development in adolescence?
progression of stages is invariant and universal
What are the causes for development in Kohlberg’s moral development?
cognitive development: transition from concrete to formal operations
social support: parent’s ability to identify, understand, and respond appropriately
What are the consequences of Kohlberg’s moral development?
positive correlation between stages evolution and prosocial behavior
negative correlation with antisocial behavior and bullying
What are the critiques of Kohlberg’s moral development?
justice does not supersede all other moral consideration in every culture
Gilligan argues that there are two moral orientations: justice and care, also sex differences
emotion regulation and empathy should be incorporated in model
situational factors explains better moral behaviors than the level of moral reasoning
What is self-concept?
more abstract: psychological self, social relationships
more differentiated: several roles
hierarchical in nature: perceived abilities in one domain affects evaluation in another
What is self-esteem?
overall rise throughout adolescence
after hitting low point around 12-13 years
(early on) mismatch between ideal and real self
(later on) adjust ideal self to better fit reality
What are positive outcomes of high self-esteem?
better able to resist peer pressure
high academic achievement
What are negative outcomes of low self-esteem?
anti-social behavior
eating disorders
anxiety
depression
suicidal thinking
What is gender role identity?
understanding that gender roles are social conventions allow more flexibility
masculinity and femininity as a continuum
four gender role types: androgynous, feminine, masculine, undifferentiated
higher self-esteem: androgynous, masculine
What is ethnic identity?
self-identification as a member of a specific group
commitment to group values
positive or negative attitude about group
What are Phinney’s stages of development?
unexamined ethnic identity: does not pay attention to ethnic identity
ethnic identity search: something makes ethnicity relevant
ethnic identity achievement: strategies to deal with possible conflicts and acceptance
What is cultural identity?
acquired from a particular society in which one is raised
development of cultural identity is a challenge in multicultural countries
What are the Multicultural Identity Integration Scales (MULTIS)?
categorization: identity with only one group
compartmentalization: multiple cultural identities separated within self
integration: cohesive connection of multiple identities within self
What is relationship with parents in adolescence?
to establish autonomy while keeping attachment strong: higher academic achievement, better mental health, less substance abuse
conflicts revolve around everyday issues
still similar in their main beliefs and values on social, political, religious, and economic issues
families are still a source of enjoyment and support
although adolescents start spending more time with their friends, attachment to parents is a better predictor of well-being
greater resilience against short and long-term adversities
What is relationship with peers in adolescents?
critical to adolescents, more than at any other time in life
groups may include members of the other sex
girls tend to have a few close friends (unstructured activities, more intimate relationships)
boys tend to participate in larger groups (structured activities, less intimate)
popularity and peer acceptance peaks in early adolescence
friends tend to share same social status and be committed to same activities
quality of friendships is more important than popularity in late adolescence
friendships become increasingly intimate
transition from cliques and crowds to close relationships
What are romantic relationships in adolescence?
sexual orientation: mix of nature and nurture, period of sexual discovery and exploration
sexual desire and social factors are just as important
being in love is important
more casual and short-lived in early adolescence
What is sexual orientation?
period of sexual discovery and exploration
by age 15, most have identified as primarily heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual
LGBTQ2S+: 10 year gap is common between initial attraction and disclosure of orientation
