Late Adulthood Flashcards
Lifespan (Longevity)
the maximum amount of time a person can live under optimal conditions
Life Expectancy
the amount of time a person can actually be expected to live in a given setting
Ageism
prejudice against people because of their age
Cataract
a condition characterized by clouding of the lens of the eye
Glaucoma
a condition involving abnormally high fluid pressure in the eye
Presbycusis
loss of acuteness if hearing due to age-related degenerative changes in the ear
Osteoporosis
a disorder in which bones become more porous, brittle, and subject to fracture, due to loss of calcium and other minerals
Sleep Apnea
temporary suspension of breathing while asleep
Cellular Clock Theory
a theory of aging focusing on the limits of cell division
Telomeres
protective segments of DNA located at the tips of chromosomes
Hormonal Stress Theory
a theory of aging that suggests stress hormones, left at elevated levels, make the body more vulnerable to chronic conditions
Immunological Theory
a theory of aging that holds that the immune system is pre-set to decline by an internal biological clock
Wear-and-Tear Theory
a theory of aging that suggests that over time, our bodies becomes less capable of repairing themselves
Free-Radical Theory
a theory of aging that attributes aging to damage caused by accumulation of unstable molecules called free radicals
Cross-Linking Theory
a theory of aging that holds that the stiffening of body proteins eventually breaks down bodily processes, leading to aging
Arthritis
inflammation of joints
Osteoporosis
a painful, degenerative disease characterized by wear and tear on joints
Rheumatoid Arthritis
a painful, degenerative disease characterized by chronic inflammation of the membranes that line the joints
Dementia
a condition characterized by deterioration of cognitive functioning
Alzheimer’s Disease
a severe form of dementia characterized by memory lapses, confusion, emotional instability, and progressive loss of cognitive functioning
Implicit Memory
automatic memories based on repetition and apparently not requiring any conscious effort to retrieve
Prospective Memory
memory of things one has planned for the future
Ego Integrity
maintenance of the belief that life is meaningful and worthwhile despite physical decline and the inevitability of death
Disengagement Theory
the view that older adults and society withdraw from one another as older adults approach death
Activity Theory
the view that older adults fare better when they engage in physical and social activities
Socio-Emotional Selectivity Theory
the view that people place increasing emphasis on emotional experience as they age but limit their social contacts to regulate their emotions
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
extreme and/or persistent feelings of dread, worry, foreboding, and concern that are frequent and unrealistic
Phobic Disorder
irrational, exaggerated fear of an object or situation
Agoraphobia
fear of open, crowded places
Selective Optimization with Compensation
reshaping of one’s life to concentrate on what one finds to be important and meaningful in the face of physical decline and possible cognitive impairment
What is gerontology?
specific study of aging
What are the three groupings in late adulthood?
young-old (65-74)
old-old (75-84)
oldest-old (85+)
What are some general characteristic of late adulthood?
period of tremendous individual variability rather than universal loss
What is senescence?
gradual deterioration of body system
What are some ageist characteristics associated with individuals in late adulthood?
grouchy, incapable, sluggish, forgetful, and fixed in their ways
What is the life expectancy for babies born in 2016?
men: 80 years
women: 84 years
why the sex difference?: men involved in risky behaviors, men are more susceptible to CVD
Why is longevity in late adulthood?
partially inherited + health care system
human lifespan: ~115 years
What are the two types of theories about aging?
programmed theories
cellular damage theories
What is cellular clock theory (Hayflick limit) of aging?
each species has a time limit beyond which less lose capacity to replicate themselves
in humans it is about 50 years
telomeres: strong of repetitive DNA at the tips of chromosomes, length is reduced slightly each time a cell replicates
telomerase: enzyme that restores telomere to the end of DNA, most adult cells lack capacity to produce telomerase
What is the hormonal stress theory of aging?
corticosteroids and adrenaline are left elevated after illness
increases susceptibility to chronic diseases
What is the immunological theory of aging?
pre-set to decline
production of antibodies declines with age
age-related changes increase risk for cancer
What is the wear-and-tear theory of aging?
our bodies become less capable of repairing themselves
accumulation of unrepaired breaks resulting in loss of cellular function
stem cells divide an unlimited amount of times, but we have a limited pool in our body
can become damaged over time
What s the free-radial theory of aging?
damage cell proteins, DNA, membranes
our body produces fewer antioxidants with age
What is the cross-linking theory of aging?
cell proteins bind to one another
leads to stiffening of body proteins
immune system combat cross-linking but get less efficient with time
What are the characteristics of the brain and nervous system in late adulthood?
decrease in efficiency, increase in compensatory functioning
reduction of brain weight
loss of gray matter: education as protective factor, less atrophy
decline in the density of dendrites
slower synaptic transmission speed
plasticity decreases
reaction time increases
What is bone density in late adulthood?
more brittle and vulnerable to fracture
What is osteoporosis?
loss of calcium
leads to bone fractures: exercise (weight bearing) can decrease risk
can shorten one’s stature
more common in women, due to drops in estrogen levels
smoking and excessive alcohol consumption as risk factors
What are characteristics of vision in late adulthood?
presbyopia
macular degeneration: part of retina that will affect sight, vision gets blurry
cataracts (1 in 5): white spots in vision
glaucoma (6%): pressure in eyes, hard to diagnose
What are characteristics of hearing in late adulthood?
gradual degeneration of every part of the auditory system, more quickly in men than in women
presbycusis
tinnitus
What are characteristics of taste and smell in late adulthood?
loss of taste buds on tongue, flavor blandness, inadequate nutrition as a result
loss of sensitivity to odours
What are characteristics of touch in late adulthood?
skin is less responsive to cold and heat
What is the general slowing of movement in late adulthood?
everything takes longer
slowing of brain activities
arthritis and loss of muscle elasticity
loss of senses’ responsiveness
What are motor functions in late adulthood?
reduction in stamina due to changes in the CVS
reduction in dexterity due to arthritis
reduction in balance due to change in muscular strength
difficulty learning new pattern of fine motor movements
What are the characteristics of sleeping in late adulthood?
need 7 hours per night on average
some suffer from insomnia and sleep apnea
wake up more frequently during night
may be related to other changes of late adulthood
how to improve sleep?: set up a nightly routine
What are eating habits in late adulthood?
satiety sensation pattern is impaired
risk for unhealthy eating
What is sexual activity in late adulthood?
decline in physical functions: estrogen and testosterone production decline
decline in frequency but still sexually active
stereotype: not asexual
physiological capacity to respond to sexual stimulation does not disappear with age, but slows down
sexual satisfaction may remain high
What is health in late adulthood?
normal aging vs. pathological aging
chronic diseases or degenerative process
can lead to disability and premature death
What is functional status?
basic and instrumental activities of daily living
What are chronic diseases in late adulthood?
chronic diseases as main cause of death
cancer is the leading cause for death after age 65
heart disease and respiratory diseases follow closely
What is substance abuse in late adulthood?
of prescription drugs
50% of prescription are not taken properly
20% of Canadian hospitalizations: problems with medication
What are accidents in late adulthood?
increased risk for unintentional injuries
house should be equipped with safety features
group with most auto accidents
What are good health habits in late adulthood?
help keeping up with activities of daily life and extending life expectancy
healthy weight and healthy diet
high levels of physical activities
not smoking, limited use of alcohol and drugs
What is suicide in late adulthood?
until 1980, rate of suicide was higher than national average, slightly above for 85+
men are 5 times more likely to commit suicide
women attempt more but men complete the act more often
What are the risk factors for suicide?
increased age
being single, divorced, or widowed
having a substance abuse problem
poorly managed chronic pain
social isolation
hopelessness and helplessness
depression
fear of being forced to move to a nursing home
loss of health, status, social roles, self-determination, and significant relationships
What are anxiety disorders in late adulthood?
3% of older adults
GAD and phobias are more common
stress releases cortisol, that suppress the functioning of the immune system
prevalence is declining in older Canadians
What is depression in late adulthood?
declining prevalence for depressive disorders in older Canadians
diagnosis: can be tricky, can be confused with dementia
What are risk factors of depression in late adulthood?
inadequate social support and income
emotional loss
nagging health problems
gender (more common in women)
education (might not have learned how to cope)
What are interventions and preventions of depression in late adulthood?
psychotherapy and medication
exercise
social involvement
religious beliefs are protective factor
What is Alzheimer’s disease?
excessive neurofibrillary tangles, clog connection between neurons
severe form of dementia
subtle memory difficulties, repetitive conversation, disorientation in unfamiliar settings, loss of memory for recent events, memory for long-ago events and well-rehearsed cognitive procedures is persevered, likely because memory can be accessed through different neural pathways
difficulty processing/regulating emotions
2/3 of dementia cases
What is explicit memory?
episodic/autobiographical
semantic memory
conscious effort
What is implicit memory?
more automatic
years of learning and repetition
does not require conscious effort
What is temporal memory?
order in which events have happened
What associative memory?
relating information
What is long-term memory in late adulthood?
adults remember the second and third decade of their lives with more details and emotional intensity
reasons: when developing identity, when sex hormones have strongest effect
What are long term memory declines in late adulthood?
retrospective memory: dependent on fluid intelligence
prospective memory: independent of fluid intelligence
episodic memory: Pollyanna principle (remember more new things), recall what fits self-view (in-line with who we are)
associative memory
temporal memory: confused
What are declines in short-term memory in late adulthood?
become more forgetful
pronounced decline after age 70
speed processing decline
learning process takes longer
not only unrelated task, but also everyday memory
but implicit memory remains largely unaffected by age
What is intelligence in late adulthood?
some people engage in high levels of mental activity during their lives and enter late adulthood with a cognitive reserve (compensate in their daily lives)
cognitive training in memory, processing speed, and reasoning can be effective and improve old-aged adults’ performance
What is language in late adulthood?
decline in reading comprehension: related to working memory
difficulty to understand spoken language: related to working memory, also to hearing difficulties
deficiencies in language production: gradual decline in expressive vocabulary, related to working memory and associative memory, more likely to experience tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, but not necessarily in receptive vocabulary
What are problem solving skills in late adulthood?
decline in three areas: executive functioning (selecting strategies), working memory (holding information in mind), processing speed
abstract problem-solving ability is not related to quality of life in late-adulthood, everyday problem solving is more concerning at this point in time
tend to regulate emotions differently, focus on remaining calm, decreasing tendency of expressing anger, increased priority on emotional regulation
What is wisdom in late adulthood?
distractibility enable broader attention span
knowledge blended with values and meaning systems
consider past, present, future, and context
sense of mastery and purpose in life is related to subjective well-being
more related to intelligence and professional experience rather than age
Baltes: performance on wisdom tests does not decline with age
What is the Cohen four-stage theory of mid- to late-life creativity?
re-evaluation phase (~50s): reflect on past accomplishments and formulate new goals
liberation phase (~60s): freer to create, more tolerant of failures, more willing to take risks
summing-up phase (~70s): knit accomplishment together in a cohesive story
encore phase (~80s): complete unfinished works and fulfill desires
What is Erikson’s psychosocial theory of ego integrity versus ego despair?
sense that one has lives a useful life
person needs to come to terms with: who she is and who she has been, how her life was lived, the choices she made, the opportunities gained and lost, death and its imminence
failure to achieve integrity leads to hopelessness and despair, too late to make changes
What are Peck’s developmental tasks in late adulthood?
ego differentiation versus work-role preoccupation: those in old age must redefine themselves in ways that do not relate to their work-roles or occupations
body transcendence versus body preoccupation: people must learn to cope with and move beyond changes in physical capabilities, shifting more value to cognitive as social activities
ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation: elderly people must come to terms with their coming death, concern for wellbeing of humankind
What is reminiscence and generativity in late adulthood?
self-positive reminiscence is related to better mental health
self-negative reminiscence is related to lower well-being
reminiscence bump: remember more from young adulthood stage, likely due to cultural scripts that tend to happen (getting a job, leaving home, marriage, etc.)
reminiscence is foundational for the process of life review: evaluative process of past behaviors, interventions have had positive effects, active and assisted living program
quest for generativity persists: feel that current efforts are valued and respected, interventions have had positive effects
What is activity theory?
should maintain the greatest possible level of activity and involvement
psychologically and physically
it is the healthiest response in late life
What is disengagement theory?
shrinkage of life space
increased individuality
acceptance of these changes
disengages from role and relationships, turns inward
What is continuity theory?
keep engaging in the same kind of activities
consistency is essential for a positive aging
What is socioemotional selectivity theory?
limiting of social contacts to a few important ones
focus on emotionally fulfilling experiences
What is self-esteem in late adulthood?
highest in childhood, dips in adolescence, rises gradually in middle-adulthood, declines in late adulthood
less body esteem as years go by (more accentuated in men)
generally higher in men
some levels of rank stability
What is self-determination versus dependence in late adulthood?
self-determined old adults think of themselves and living a “normal life”
dependent adults tend to worry more about aging and physical disabilities
How does volunteering impact self-esteem?
impacts valuable knowledge and skills to younger generations
make people feel capable, confident, and useful to others
lower risks of dementia and mental health issues
promotes physical and cognitive activity
What is elderly abuse?
7% report emotional or financial abuse by an adult child, spouse, or caregiver
intentionally causing harm
What is religious coping?
tendency to turn to religious beliefs and institutions in troubles times
primary means to manage depression and anxiety
sex differences: more common among women
religious beliefs: linked to measures of well-being and resilience, spirituality more than particular set of doctrines/teachings
attendance at religious services: highest for seniors (4 in 10), more optimistic, physically heathier, more satisfied with their lives, longer living, opportunity to help others, intergenerational involvement
What are living arrangements in late adulthood?
~6.8% (over age 65), ~30% (over age 85) reside in long-term care facilities
factors: health, income, adult children’s characteristics, social support services
can affect sense of self-determination and disrupt their social networks
What is the partnership between heterosexual couples in late adulthood?
partner as most important source of emotional support
higher levels of pleasure and lower levels of conflict
martial satisfaction is higher in late adult years, higher among more egalitarian relationships
more based on loyalty, familiarity, mutual investment, less based on passion
less loneliness and better physical and mental health, even when poverty and other factors are controlled for
less likely to seek divorce, generally when involved in unacceptable negative relationship, one of the partners has taken up a relationship with an outsider
increasing likelihood to cohabit if previously married, worry about ramification of legal marriage
What are LGBTQ2S+ long-term relationships in late adulthood?
similar findings: higher self-esteem, less depression, fewer suicidal urges, less alcohol and drug abuse
but, twice more likely to age alone and to face discrimination
generally do not receive same benefits as heterosexual couples
What is widowhood in late adulthood?
one of most traumatic experiences in life
related to decline in physical and psychological health, increased mortality, deterioration in memory function, increased risk of depression
most will emerge as resilient individuals
but some will go through severe grief, higher risk for high blood pressure, heart problems, cancer, and thoughts of suicide
men are more likely to remarry
What are family relationships in late adulthood?
relationship with family becomes more harmonious as adults get older
closeness through visits, phone calls, emails, etc.
What are grandchildren relationships in late adulthood?
ties can be meaningful and deep, often act as friends and confidants
but contact can decline
What are sibling relationships in late adulthood?
source of emotional support, especially after a spouse death
What are friendships in late adulthood?
significant impact on overall life satisfaction, self-esteem, health, and amount of loneliness reported by older adults, particularly true for unmarried seniors
relationships are more equitable and reciprocal than with family
source of companionship, laughter, and shared activities
smaller network as a way to regulate emotions, friends are like them and enjoy same kind of activities, avoid people with whom they have had conflicts
women’s network tend to larger, closer, and more intimate, but network is just as important to old adult men
What is retirement in late adulthood?
typical age: 65+
planning as key for a successful retirement
What are times and reasons for retirement?
expected life history for retirement age
health
family considerations
financial support/backup
work characteristics
sex differences
Why would someone choose not to retire?
bridge employment/restricted retirement
continuing in a lifelong occupation, sometimes due to low retirement income
learning new job skills and workplace functioning
What are the effects of retirement?
income: non-government sources provide the largest proportion
poverty: unattached older adults are more likely to be poor
health, attitudes, emotions: can have a positive effect on life satisfaction, elderly with the least control respond least well, marriage and high SES predicted satisfaction
geographic mobility: more retirees stay close to where they were living, amenity move, compensatory (kinship) migration, institutional migration
leisure activities: essential for retirees physical and psychological health, enhance physical functioning, positive feelings, and social interactions
What is Baltes’ selective optimization with compensation?
related to socioemotional selectivity theory, reshaping lives to focus on what is important and meaningful
better person-environment fit to changing conditions
maximize older people’s gains while minimizing their losses
selection: setting goals
optimization: increasing gains
compensation: avoiding losses
What is ageism?
89% of Canadians associate aging with negative outcomes
being treated as if they are invisible (41%)
being treated as if they have nothing to contribute (38%)
being treated as if they are incompetent (27%)
major obstacle for life review and accomplishment of Erikson’s last stage of ego integrity versus despair
