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From Flashcardlet > Micro Ch. 8 > Flashcards

Micro Ch. 8 Flashcards

1
Q

Pertains to all chemical reactions and physical workings of the cell

A

metabolism

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2
Q

aka: biosynthesis

any process that results in synthesis of cell molecules and structures

A

anabolism

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3
Q

building and bond-making process that forms larger macromolecules from smaller ones; requires the input of energy

A

anabolism

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4
Q

breaks the bonds of larger molecules into smaller molecules and often releases energy

A

catabolism

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5
Q

chemicals that increase the rate of a chemical reaction without becoming part of the product or being consumed in the reaction

A

enzymes

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6
Q

a measureable resistance to a reaction which must be overcome for a reaction to proceed

A

energy of activation

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7
Q

reactant molecule; enzymes bind to this during a reaction

A

substrate

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8
Q

conjugated enzyme; an enzyme with its apoenzyme and cofactors

A

holoenzyme

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9
Q

polypeptide or protein when in a conjugated enzyme structure

A

apoenzyme

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10
Q

organic molecules (coenzymes) or inorganic elements

A

cofactor

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11
Q

RNA molecules that catalyze reactions on other RNA

A

ribozymes

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12
Q

Hypothesis that RNA was in fact the first genetic material within ancient cells

A

RNA Hypothesis

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13
Q

enzymes that are transported extracellularly, where they break down large food molecules or harmful chemicals

A

exoenzymes

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14
Q

enzymes retained intracellularly and function there

A

endoenzymes

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15
Q

enzymes always present in relatively constant amounts, regardless of the cellular environment

A

constitutive enzymes

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16
Q

enzyme in which its production is induced or repressed in response to changes in concentration of the substrate

A

regulated enzyme

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17
Q

compound that loses electrons is ______

A

oxidized

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18
Q

compound that receives electrons is ______

A

reduced

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19
Q

chemically unstable enzyme due to changes in normal conditions

A

labile

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20
Q

process by which weak bonds that collectively maintain the native shape of the apoenzyme are broken; causes extreme distortion of the shape; prevents substrate from attaching to the active site

A

denaturation

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21
Q

the “mimic” competes with the substrate for the binding site; shuts down the enzyme

A

competitive inhibition

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22
Q

negative feedback mechanism that can slow down enzymatic activity once a certain concentration of product is produced

A

noncompetitive inhibition

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23
Q

regulator molecule does not bind in the same site as the substrate

A

noncompetitive inhibition

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24
Q

a means to stop further synthesis of an enzyme somewhere along its pathway

A

enzyme repression

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25
Q

as the level of the end product from a given enzymatic reaction has built to excess, the genetic apparatus responsible for replacing these enzymes is automatically suppressed

A

enzyme repression

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26
Q

enzymes are induced only when suitable substrates are present; production of the enzyme is induced by its substrate

A

enzyme induction

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27
Q

a chemical reaction that releases energy

A

exergonic

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28
Q

a chemical reaction that requires energy

A

endergonic

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29
Q

to add an inorganic phosphate

A

phosphorylate

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30
Q

metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate; the free energy released in this process is used to form ATP and NADH

A

glycolysis

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31
Q

a series of reactions that converts glucose to CO2 and allows the cell to recover significant amounts of energy

A

aerobic respiration

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32
Q

a form of respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen; respiration without oxygen

A

anaerobic respiration

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33
Q

a series of redox reactions occurring during the final phase of the respiratory pathway

A

oxidative phosphorylation

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34
Q

production of ATP in cellular respiration; involves the pumping of protons through channels to establish a proton gradient; protons pass down the gradient which generates ATP

A

chemiosmosis

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35
Q

process in which enzymes can further reduce nitrite to nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, and nitrogen gas; important step in recycling nitrogen in the biosphere

A

denitrification

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36
Q

the incomplete oxidation of glucose or other carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen

A

fermentation

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37
Q

type of fermentation that occurs in yeast or bacterial species that have metabolic pathways for converting pyruvic acid to ethanol

A

alcoholic fermentation

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38
Q

type of fermentation that occurs when glucose is fermented to a mixture of lactic acid, acetic acid, and carbon dioxide

A

acidic fermentation; heterolactic fermentation

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39
Q

type of fermentation that produces a combination of acetic, lactic, succinic, and formic acids, and lowers the pH of a medium to about 4.0

A

mixed acid fermentation

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40
Q

acid that breaks down fatty acids joined to gylcerol

A

lipase

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41
Q

2-carbon units are transferred to coenzyme A, creating acetyl CoA, which enters the Kreb’s cycle; can yield a large amount of energy

A

beta oxidation

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42
Q

enzymes that break proteins down to their amino acid components

A

proteases

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43
Q

the removal of an amino group from a molecule

A

deamination

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44
Q

the property of a system to integrate catabolic and anabolic pathways to improve cell efficiency

A

amphibolism

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45
Q

a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids

A

gluconeogenesis

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46
Q

phase of photosynthesis which proceeds only in the presence of sunlight

A

light-dependent reactions

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47
Q

phase of photosynthesis which proceeds regardless of lighting conditions

A

light-independent reactions

48
Q

energy packets that deliver solar energy; travels as waves

A

photons; quanta

49
Q

green photosynthetic pigments that absorb light

A

chlorophylls

50
Q

yellow, orange, or red photosynthetic pigments that absorb light

A

carotenoids

51
Q

red or blue-green photosynthetic pigments that absorb light

A

phycobilins

52
Q

chemical reaction in which molecules are broken down into smaller units through the absorption of light

A

photolysis

53
Q

ATP formed through a series of sunlight-driven reactions in phototrophs

A

photophosphorylation

54
Q

The main events of the reactions in photosynthesis that do not require light

A

The Calvin cycle

55
Q

the beginning of the Calvin cycle; the point where CO2 is combined with a doubly phosphorylated 5-carbon acceptor molecule (RuBP); generates a 6-carbon compound that splits into two 3 carbon molecules of 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA)

A

carbon fixaton

56
Q

oxygen-releasing photosynthesis; occurs in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria

A

oxygenic photosynthesis

57
Q

sometimes needed for an enzyme to be fully functional

A

cofactor

58
Q

these are either coenzymes or metal ions

A

cofactors

59
Q

a class of RNA molecules that catalyze reactions on other RNA; their discovery is evidence to support the RNA hypothesis

A

ribozymes

60
Q

a biological catalyst that lacks an essential cofactor

A

apoenzyme

61
Q

two levels of protein structure that principally determine the active site of an enzyme

A

tertiary and quarternary

62
Q

determines the 3-D shape in enzymes needed for substrate specificity

A

protein folding

63
Q

active site of an enzyme is also known as the _____ _____

A

catalytic site

64
Q

the region of an enzyme where the substrate binds; most “unique” feature of an enzyme

A

active site; catalytic site

65
Q

enzyme bonding strength with a substrate

A

weak

66
Q

inorganic cofactors

A

metallic trace elements

67
Q

activates enzymes; helps to bring the active site and substrate close together; participates directly in chemical reactions with the enzyme-substrate complex

A

metallic trace elements

68
Q

often binds within an enzymes active site and produces a unique active site for the substrate

A

cofactor

69
Q

acts as an electron carrier for redox reactions in metabolism

A

coenzymes

70
Q

often derived from vitamins; a type of cofactor that will act in conjunction with an enzyme to carry out activity

A

coenzymes

71
Q

component of a coenzyme that is critical to nutrition and the metabolic function of coenzyme complexes

A

vitamins

72
Q

regulated enzyme activity is completely dependent on ____________ concentration

A

substrate

73
Q

what suffix denotes an enzyme?

A

-ase

74
Q

how are most enzymes named?

A

by the action of the enzyme

75
Q

will intracellular enzymes function anywhere if the conditions are right?

A

yes

76
Q

an enzyme that works outside the cell in which it was produced

A

exoenzyme

77
Q

an enzyme that works inside the cell in which it was produced

A

endoenzyme

78
Q

constituents of a redox pair

A

electron acceptor and electron donor

79
Q

a redox reaction involves coupling of which two types of reactions?

A

oxidation and reduction

80
Q

a compound that loses electrons to an electron-accepting compound has been ________

A

oxidized

81
Q

a compound that gains electrons from an electron-donating compound has been ________

A

reduced

82
Q

conditions that can denature an enzyme and its function

A

pH, water concentration, salinity, and temperature

83
Q

what actions could increase the rate of an enzymatic reaction that is currently not at optimal conditions?

A

slightly increase or decrease temperature, increase substrate concentration, increase enzyme concentration

84
Q

regulated enzymes are induced or repressed according to the concentration of the ________

A

substrate

85
Q

physical conditions needed for the optimal function of an enzyme include:

A

substrate concentration, temperature, and osmotic pressure

86
Q

what does the phrase “enzymes are catalysts” mean?

A

enzymes are biological catalysts because they speed up the rate of a chemical reaction of microbes without becoming part of the products or consumed in the reaction;

87
Q

explain competitive inhibition of an enzyme

A

a normal substrate competes for the active site of an enzyme with a competitive inhibitor (“mimic”); if the normal substrate attaches, the reaction proceeds; if the inhibitor attaches, the reaction is blocked

88
Q

explain noncompetitive inhibition of an enzyme

A

an enzyme has 2 binding sites: an active site and a regulatory site; once a certain concentration is reached, the regulatory molecule binds to the regulatory site and changes the conformation of the active site so the substrate cannot attach

89
Q

how does an enzyme contribute to a chemical reaction?

A

enzymes speed up the chemical reaction; uncatalyzed reactions do not generally occur fast enough for cellular processes

90
Q

what happens when an enzyme is not at its optimal pH or temperature?

A

it becomes chemically unstable (labile); low temps inhibits catalysis; high temps denature apoenzymes; low or high pH or certain chemicals are denaturing agents

91
Q

what are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?

A

aerobic respiration uses O2 as final electron acceptor whereas anaerobic respiration uses non-O2 compounds as the final electron acceptor; aerobic resp yields 36-38 ATPs, whereas anaerobic resp yields 2-36 ATPs

92
Q

account for the ATP generated during aerobic respiration

A

4 ATP are produced by 2 are used up during process so there is a net of 2 ATP

93
Q

how many ATP are produced by aerobic respiration in prokaryotes? eukaryotes? why the difference?

A

up to 38 in prokaryotes; less in eukaryotes; because energy is expended in transporting he NADH produced during glycolysis; bacteria lack mitochondria so no loss of ATP during transport of NADH

94
Q

how does fermentation differ from respiration?

A

no Krebs Cycle; uses organic compounds as electron acceptor; yields a net 2 ATP

95
Q

what products does fermentation yield?

A

alcoholic beverages; solvents; organic acids; dairy products; vitamins, antibiotics, hormones

96
Q

general categories of fermentation products

A

alcoholic fermentation products and acidic fermentation products

97
Q

what is photophosphorylation?

A

light-dependent reaction; channels in the thylakoids pump H+ into the inner chamber; ATP synthase phosphorylates ADP to ATP; NADPH and ATP are released into the stroma of the chloroplast

98
Q

what is the Calvin Cycle?

A

light-independent reaction; occurs in the chloroplast stroma or cytoplasm of cyanobacteria; uses energy produced in the light phase to synthesize glucose

99
Q

what is the function of light harvesting pigments in photosynthesis?

A

to gather light energy and transfer the energy to the reaction centers for the photo-induced redox processes

100
Q

protein part of an enzyme; inactive

A

apoenzyme

101
Q

nonprotein part of an enzyme; gives signal

A

cofactor

102
Q

activated enzyme; ready to work

A

holoenzyme

103
Q

six classes of enzymes

A 
oxidoreductases
transferases
hydrolases
lyases
isomerases
ligases
104
Q

most common electron carrier; carries hydrogens and electrons from dehydrogenation reactions

A

NAD

105
Q

Reduces to FADH2; Krebs

A

FAD

106
Q

Reduces to NADPH; photosynthesis

A

NADP

107
Q

3 part molecule: adenine, ribose, 3 phosphate groups bonded to the ribose

A

ATP

108
Q

generation of ATP through a transfer of a phosphate group from a phosphorylated compound directly to ADP

A

substrate level phosphorylation

109
Q

series of reactions that converts glucose to CO2 and allows the cell to recover significant amounts of energy (glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, Electron transport chain)

A

aerobic respiration

110
Q

facultative and aerotolerant anaerobes; uses only glycolysis; oxygen is not required

A

fermentation

111
Q

final electron acceptor can be an oxidized compound (glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, electron transport chain)

A

anaerobic respiration

112
Q

glucose is enzymatically converted to pyruvic acid; synthesizes a small amount of ATP anaerobically

A

glycolysis

113
Q

How many ATP are made and used during glycolysis; what is net ATP

A

4 made; 2 are used; net 2

114
Q

What is pyruvic acid converted to before entering the Kreb’s Cycle?

A

acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)

115
Q

what are the main products of the Kreb’s Cycle?

A

Reduced NADH and FADH2; 2 ATP

116
Q

what is the flow of the respiratory chain (electron transport system)?

A

redox carriers receive electrons; electrons are passed from one redox molecule to the next; flow of electrons allows active transport of hydrogens outside the cell membrane; oxygen receives hydrogens and electrons and produces water

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