MB S2 Flashcards
1
Q
What are some of the elements of mammalian blood?
A
Carbon Dioxide, Oxygen, Water, Salts, Lipids, Nitrogenous Wastes, Other products of digestion
2
Q
How is Carbon Dioxide carried in blood?
A
CO2 is mostly carried in solution in plasma as a bicarbonate.
3
Q
How is Oxygen carried in blood?
A
Oxygen is carried as oxyhaemoglobin in red blood cells.
4
Q
How is water carried in blood?
A
Water is carried as blood plasma, which is 90% water.
5
Q
How are salts carried in blood?
A
Sodium, Potassium, Mg, Cl ions, sulfate ions and phosphate ions are transported in solution of plasma.
6
Q
How are lipids carried in blood?
A
Lipids are absorbed from the digestive system into the lymph as glycerol and fatty acids suspended in plasma. they are mostly transported in the blood as glycerides, phospholipids and cholesterol that are associated with plasma proteins.
7
Q
How is nitrogenous waste carried in blood?
A
Wastes are mostly carried as urea, with a small amount of ammonia and uric acid in the blood plasma.
8
Q
What are “other products of digestion” and how are they carried in blood?
A
substances such as amino acids or glucose are dissolved or suspended in plasma,
9
Q
Where is oxygen carried in the blood and how?
A
Oxygen is carried in the red blood cells by the haemoglobin pigment
10
Q
Carbon Dioxide is carried in the blood? and how?
A
Carbon dioxide can be carried by the haemoglobin in red blodd cells but most of it is carried in the blood plasma. this is in the form of bicarbonate ions.
11
Q
Water carried in the blood how?
A
carried as the liquid solvent in the blood plasma
12
Q
You have to preform a first hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
this is your aim, name the method?
Aim: To determine how dissolved carbon dioxide affects the pH of water.
A
- add ten drops of universal indicator to 50ml of water in a beaker
- use a straw to exhale air through the water. noting that exhaled contains a high proportion of carbon dioxide.
- observe changes in colour
13
Q
With the investigation of dissolved carbon dioxide in water and its pH what would the results say?
A
The UI changes from green to yellow. If tested with a pH probe the pH will change from a 7 to a 6.5 or lower depending on how long carbon dioxide was added.
14
Q
With the investigation of dissolved carbon dioxide in water and its pH what would the conclusion say?
A
Carbon Dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid. This decreases the pH and increases the acidity of water
15
Q
Explain the reaction with chemistry and an equation.
A
Carbon Dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
eg. CO2 + H20 —-> H2CO3
Carbonic acid is a weak acid which partly ionizes =
H2CO3 ——-> H+ + HCO3-
The hydrogen ion makes the water acidic and the HCO3 is the bicarbonate ion and that is how it is carried in blood.
16
Q
Why is there a need to remove the carbon dioxide from the body?
A
You have to remember that enzymes are very sensitive to pH changes and quickly change shape and lose their catalytic activity. this would be disastrous for cell metabolism.
To avoid this problem CO2 is carried away in the blood as rapidly as it is produced in the cells.
17
Q
With internal transport systems in mammals, what system to they primarily rely on with their body?
A
The circulatory system, made up of the blood, heart and blood vessels; veins arteries and capillaries
18
Q
With internal transport systems in mammals, what system to they primarily rely on with their body to get all elements moved around?
A
The circulatory system, made up of the blood, heart and blood vessels; veins arteries and capillaries
19
Q
You are going to need to estimate the size of red and white blood cells with an investigation. what is the aim?
A
To estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each.
20
Q
The aim is “To estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each” name a method.for this practical.
A
- use commercially available slides of human blood and a grid slide. If you do not have a grid slide, place a clear plastic millimetre ruler at the bottom of the field of view.
- Note with the use of diagrams or own knowledge that red blood cells contain no nucleus, while white blood cells contain a large, lobular nucleus.
- Observe under low power and use the reference grid to determine the size of your field of view.
21
Q
what would be the results to the investigation of “estimating the size of red and white blood cells?”
A
Red blood cells are about 7 microns in diameter and are disc shaped
white blood cells are about 10 microns in diameter and are more spherical and contain an obvious nucleus.
22
Q
what would be the conclusion to the investigation of “estimating the size of red and white blood cells?”
A
White blood cells are bigger than red blood cells.
23
Q
What is haemoglobin?
A
Haemoglobin is a complex molecule that gives blood its red colour. Haemoglobin enables blood to carry oxygen.
The protein portion “globin” consists of peptide chains, each of which has an iron containing “haeme” group
Oxygen is carried in a loose combination called oxyhaemoglobin.
24
Q
How is the presence of haemoglobin an advantage to organisms?
A
Oxygen unlike carbon dioxide does not readily react to form an acid and therefore it can only be held in a water solution.
Though only a little of water can be carried at a certain time in the substance, and the rate at which oxygen is carried to cells is an important factor in the maintenance of living processes.
There fore there is a need for increased capacity to be able to carry the oxygen in the blood, and this increase its brought about haemoglobin!!!!
25
Whats a structural advantage of haemoglobin in relation to oxygen?
the structure of the haemoglobin molecule is an adaptive advantage because it is a type of molecule that can combine with oxygen loosely at the respiratory surfaces and then release the oxygen freely in the capillaries.
26
Other adaptive advantages of haemoglobin?
1. during the development of red blood cells in mammals the nucleus is lost from the cell and the cell aquires haemoglobin. it has been suggested that the development of red blood cells without a nucleus is an evolutionary advantage because it leaves extra room for more haemoglobin in each cell.
2. in the blood of most vertebrates, haeme units are combined in groups of four. therefore, the whole haemoglobin molecule can carry four oxyfen molecules. this is an adaptive advantage in that it increases the rate and efficency of oxygen intake and transport.
27
What are two examples of technologies used to meausre oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood?
ABG (Arterial blood gas) analysis and A pulse oximiter
28
Describe ABG analysis?
This analysis measures the amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.
the analysis evaluates how effectively the lungs are delivering oxygen and how well the lungs are getting rid of carbon dioxide.
29
A blood gas analyser measures what in its analysis?
partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide, the oxygen content, oxygen saturation , bicarbonate content and blood pH.
30
What is blood collected for ABG analysis?
Arterial blood is collected.
31
Describe a pulse oximeter?
this can be used for monitoring oxygen saturation , it is a device that is attached to a finger and uses the absorption of light to measure oxygen saturation.
32
Whats an advantage of a pulse oximetre
it has the ability to be non invasive and can provide continuous monitoring for patients undergoing anaesthesia or mechanical ventilation.
33
When are the pulse oximeters used and the ABG analysis used?
These technologies are used under the conditions of:
1. to assess respiratory diseases and other conditions that may affect the lungs such as emphysema, pneumonia and sciliosis.
2. to manage patients recieving oxygen therapy, mechanical ventilation or anaesthesia.
34
Blood is pumped from the heart to the body cells through?
Arteries
35
Veins carry blood?
back to the heart
36
To pass from arteries to veins, blood must?
pass through tiny thin walled blood vessels called capillaries.
37
There are capillaries next to?
every cell of the body, and every entry and exit point of the body.
38
Thinness of the cappilary walls allows?
chemicals to diffuse in and out of the blood.
39
Features of arteries?
- thick, muscular walls
- no valves present
- carry blood away from the heart
- carry oxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary artery)
- blood in arteries is under pressure. (it is being pumped)
40
Features of veins?
- thin walled
- valves are present to prevent back flow of blood
- carry blood back to the heart
- arries deoxygenated blood (except for the pulmonary vein)
- blood is under low pressure; movement is assisted by body muscles.
41
Features of capillaries?
- thin walled, often only one cell thick
| - carries blood between arteries and veins
42
Describe a cross section of a physical vein as if looking at an image of one.
first it has a muscle layer, then a lining of cells, and then the vein cavity for the blood flow
43
Describe a cross section of an artery.
first it has a muscle layers (2) then it is lined with elastic fires followed by a lining of cells and then the artery cavity where the blood is being pumped.
44
Describe a cross section of a capillary.
it is thin walled, often only one cell thick. (it connects arteries and veins.
45
Artery walls are very?
elastic
46
High pressure blood passes through... they?
expand outwards and then contract again helping to push the blood along. this rhythmic expanding and contracting is what you can feel as your pulse. (wrist throat examples)
47
Deoxygenated blood from the body enters which atrium, and is squeezed into which ventricle?
the deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium and is squeezed into the right ventricle and then pumped to the lungs
48
Whats the pathway of the oxygenated blood in the heart?
blood from the lungs enters the left atrium and is squeezed into the left ventricle and then pumped to body tissues through the aorta.
49
What is he chemical composition of blood in the lung tissue?
the blood is recieving oxygen and carbon dioxide is being released.
50
What is he chemical composition of blood in the General body tissues such as skin tissue?
Blood is recieving carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen.
51
What is he chemical composition of blood in the Stomach tissue?
water is diffusing into the blood, some substances such as alcohol, pass into stomach tissue from the blood through the walls of the stomach.
52
What is he chemical composition of blood in the small intestinal tissue?
the blood would be carrying elements of digested foods such as amino acids and glucose, these elements would diffuse into blood and go straight to the liver.
53
What is he chemical composition of blood in the Liver tissue?
Glucose is added or removed, some poisonous or unwanted substances such as alcohol are removed, and some vitamins such as iron and excess lipids are removed. excess amino acids are removed and converted to urea which is then added to blood.
54
What is he chemical composition of blood in the Large intestinal tissue?
water, salts and vitamins are absorbed in the large intestine and pass into the blood
55
What is he chemical composition of blood in the kidney tissue?
urea, excess water and salts are removed from the blood to be excreated
56
What is he chemical composition of blood in the Endocrine tissue?
hormone are secreted directly into blood stream
57
As blood passes through capillaries in body tissues what is happening?
oxygen is being released from the haemoglobin molecules and diffuses along the concentration gradient into the body cells. , there is always a concentration gradient favouring this because the cells are constantly using up oxygen for cellular respiration.
58
alveoli are?
air sacs in the lungs
59
Most donated blood is?
broken down into products, such as:
red blood cells, platelets, plasma, immunoglobins, cryoprecipitate, white blood cells.
whole blood donations are only used in full when absolutely required. eg if a person has lost 20% volume of their blood.
60
Identify the product of blood "red blood cells" and all its uses.
Red blood cells are used to increase the amount of oxygen that can be carried to the body's tissues.
it is given to people who have anemia, whose bone marrow does not make enough red blood cells or who have lost alot of blood.
61
Identify the product of blood "red blood cells" and all its uses.
Red blood cells are used to increase the amount of oxygen that can be carried to the body's tissue. this is given primarily to people that have anemia and are unable to produce sufficient amount of RBC in their bone marrow.
62
Identify the product of blood "Platelets" and all its uses.
Platelets are essential for blood clotting. Platelets are given to people who have cancer of the blood or lymph such as leukamia or lymphoma. patients undergoing cancer therapy do not make enough blood platelets and are also given platelets extracted from donated blood.
63
Identify the product of blood "Plasma" and all its uses.
Plasma is the liquid proportion of the blood containing blood clotting factors and immunoglobins. Plasma is use to treat people with clotting disorders such as haemophilliacs. Plasma is also used to adjust the osmotic pressure of blood and to pull fluids out of tissues.
64
Identify the product of blood "Platelets" and all its uses.
Platelets are essential for blood clotting. Platelets are given o people who have cancer of the blood or lymph such as leukaemia or lymphoma.
Patients undergoing cancer therapy do not make enough blood platelets and are also given platelets extracted from donated blood.
65
Identify the product of blood "Plasma" and all its uses.
Plasma is the liquid portion of the blood containing blood-clotting factors. Plasma is also used to adjust the osmotic pressure of blood and to pull fluids out of tissues. some products are derived from plasma.
66
Identify the product of blood "Immunogloins" and all its uses.
Also called antibodies, are infection fighting parts of the blood plasma. Immunoglobins are used to treat people who have difficulty fighting infections and whose immune systems are not working properly because of diseases such as AIDS
67
Identify the product of blood "Croprecipitate" and all its uses.
Cryoprecipitate and concentrates of factors VIII and IX are used for patients who suffer a variety of bleeding disorders such as haemophillia.
68
Identify the product of blood "White blood cells" and all its uses.
These are another infection fighting component of the blood. White blood cells are only used occasionally to treatlife threatening infections when the cell count is very low or the white blood cells are not working properly. most of the time antibiotics are used in these cases rather than giving a tranfusion of white blood cells.
69
Identify the whole blood and all its uses in donation.
Whole blood donations are only used primarily like this if a person has lost more than 20% blood volume or when a paricular component is not available. usually a whole blood transfusion is used to restore blood volume. it is given to people who have loast a lot of blood through injury or surgery.
70
Artificial blood is currently only designed to?
- increase plasma volume (artificial plasma volume expanders are used in cases of severe burns e.g normal saline or Ringers lactate solution.
- carry oxygen and carbon dioxide
71
Artificial blood is currently only designed to?
- increase plasma volume (artificial plasma volume expanders are used in cases of severe burns e.g normal saline or Ringers lactate solution.
- carry oxygen and carbon dioxide
No substitutes have yet been developed that can replace other functions eg coaggulation and immune defence
72
Name the two types of oxygen carrying artificial blood that has been produced?
Perflurochemicals and Haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers
73
Describe Perflurochemicals?
these are synthetic materials that can dissolve about fifty times more oxygen than blood plasma.
it is cheap to produce and because they are synthetic there is no risk of the material being infected by diseases.
74
Why is more research needed on perflurochemicals?
because perfluro chemicals must combine with other substances in order to mix in the blood stream, this changes how well the artificial blood can flow through blood vessels.
Research has been conducted with mixing them with lipids and more recently lecithin.
75
Describe Haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers?
They are made from haemoglobin extracted from red blood cells. haemoglobin based oxygen carriers are not contained in membrane and therefore do not require blood typing and cross matching of blood.
note that membrane of red blood cells contain antigen molecules that determine the blood type eg. A, B, AB or O. In a normal blood transfusion care must be taken in selecting and matchig blood types.
76
Why is more research needed for haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers?
More research is needed because haemoglobin must be modified before it can be used, current blood substitutes do not have the enzymes that prevent haemoglobin from oxidising. once haemoglobin is oxidized it cannot carry oxygen. Blood substitutes only stay in circulation for 20-30 hours while natural red blood cells for 100 days.
77
Products to replace blood must be?
- immediatley available
- safe from disease
- able to be stored for a long time (blood donors can only be held for 3-4 weeks)
- be able to be used without blood typing and matching
78
Why are blood substitutes useful?
they are useful in emergencies. disasters, wars and in countries where there are no blood donor services.
79
The need for oxygen in cells? explain.
Oxygen is needed by all living cells for aerobic respiration. Respiration is a process carried out by all cells to release energy. Carbon dioxide is a by-product of respiration.
A constant supply of oxygen to cells and tissues is essential, if oxygen is not available a cell dies.
80
why is the removal of carbon dioxide essential?
because when CO2 reacts with water it forms a carbonic acid, and in cells this is toxic because it lowers the pH of the cytoplasm.
81
The accumulation of carbon dioxide to any great extent is.....
toxic to the cell
82
How is carbon dioxide removed?
It is transported away with the blood, to which the CO2 then racts with the blood in the plasma forming a carbonic acid but the special buffer systems in the plasma make sure it does not upset the pH of the blood plasma by ionizing it and turning it into a bicarbonate ion.
83
Simply what is xylem and phloem?
Transport systems in plants
84
Simply what is xylem?
Xylem transports water in plant, and is made up of dead tissue. Xylem only travels up the plant.
85
Simply what is phloem?
Phloem transports sugars and Phloem is living tissue. Phloem transports up and down the plant.
86
Xylem cells are not alive, so physical processes are responsible for the upward movement of water and minerals. a current theory called the cohesion-tension theory is summarised in four processes. Name them.
Cohesion, Transpiration, Tension and Adhesion
87
Xylem's cohesion-tension theory is made up of four processes describe "cohesion."
Cohesion, the water molecules stick together within a continuous network of liquid columns, which have the ability to instantaneously transfer pressure or tension.
88
Xylem's cohesion-tension theory is made up of four processes describe "Cohesion."
Cohesion, the water molecules stick together within a continuous network of liquid columns, which have the ability to instantaneously transfer pressure or tension.
89
Xylem's cohesion-tension theory is made up of four processes describe the second "Transpiration."
Transpiration: water is evaporated through the stomates and is replaced by water from cells and xylem tissue.
90
Xylem's cohesion-tension theory is made up of four processes describe the third "Tension."
Tension: water moves p the xylem like a wire being pulled up, due to cohesion. This helps resist the formation of bubbles within the stream.
91
Xylem's cohesion-tension theory is made up of four processes describe the fourth "Adhesion."
Adhesion: when the pull stops (eg at night) water sticks to the sides of the tubes and does not fall down.
92
Again, describe Xylem tubes?
dead, hollow cells, joined end to end forming continuous tube from root to leaf. xylem tubes transport water and other dissolved minerals found in the soil.
93
Transpiration in xylem?
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the leaves. when the stomates are open water can constantly evaporate, creating a tension or "pull" in the remaining water in the leaves.
94
Water molecules are quite strongly attracted to each other and tend to cling tightly together. this force is called?
Cohesion.
95
SO when water evaporates from leaves and creates a "pull" force? what happens?
each water molecule behind it is then being pulled up because of cohesion forces. so all the water molecules continue pulling up a column of water as they are evaporated away and lost through transpiration. This flow is called the "transpiration stream"
96
What is the capillary effect?
this is the way that water can "climb up" the walls of a container. eg the formation of a meniscus in a test tube.
this happens not only because water molecules are attracted to eachother (cohesion) but because they are attracted to other things eg the test tube glass or the inside of a xylem tube. this attraction is called "adhesion
97
Is xylem active or passive transport?
Passive, it cost the plant no energy.
98
Is phloem active or passive transport?
Active, the plant must constantly supply energy to make it happen.
99
Movement of materials in phloem is called?
Translocation.
100
What is the generally accepted process in movement for phloem?
The pressure flow mechanism other wise known as "Source to Sink"
101
State the steps to the model "source to sink" for movement in phloem.
Step 1: Sugar is loaded into the phloem tube from the sugar source, e.g. the leaf (active transport)
Step 2: Water enters by osmosis due to a high solute concentration in the phloem tube. Water pressure is now raised at this end of the tube.
Step 3: At the sugar sink, where sugar is taken to be used or stored, it leaves the phloem tube. Water follows the sugar, leaving by osmosis and thus the water pressure in the tube drops.
The building up of pressure at the source end, and the reduction of pressure at the sink end, causes water to flow from source to sink. As sugar is dissolved in the water, it flows at the same rate as the water. Sieve tubes between phloem cells allow the movement of the phloem sap to continue relatively unimpeded.
102
A phloem cell is alive and filled with?
cytoplasm
103
Flow of cytoplasm in phloem carries what?
sugars through each cell, as passing through each cell they go through a sieve plate.
104
Phloem has a companion cell on the side of it, what does the companion cell have?
a nucleus which controls phloem tissue and also alot of mitochondria to provide ATP to the phloem cell.
105
Plants and animals need energy for life processes. They obtain this energy by what? and what is the equation for this?
Respiration
C6H12O6 + 602 -------> 6H2O + 6CO2 + Kj
glucose + oxygen ------> water + carbon dioxide + energy
106
Homeostasis is assisted by?
transport systems
107
Substances needed by cells, and those removed from cells are carried by?
transport systems
108
Transport Systems help homeostasis by maintaining what?
nutrient-waste balance and an oxygen-carbon dioxide balance in the tissues.
109
circulating blood collects?
wastes from cells and takes them to excretory organs
110
whats the equation for photosynthesis?
6CO2 + 6H2O -------> C6H12O6 + 6O2
| carbon dioxide + water -------> glucose + oxygen
111
"Drawing transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue"
Name a method if this is the Aim.
To gather first hand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue.
1. place a fresh stick of celery in eosine dye
2. When the colour has moved into the leaves, remove the stick from the dye and make thin longitudinal and transverse sections of the stem.
3. Observe prepared slides out of the cells from longitudinal and transverse sections of stems.
112
"Drawing transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue"
what would the conclusion of this practical be?
Longitudinal sections show relatively long, narrow cells in both phloem and xylem. Transverse sections show the relatively thick cell walls of xylem tubes and the perforated sieve plates in phloem cells.
