Locomotion Flashcards
1
Q
define locomotion
A
movement or the ability to move from one place to another
2
Q
What is the motion of walking actually a controlled version of?
A
falling
3
Q
What organ system aids locomotion?
A
musculoskeletal
4
Q
Is the motion of walking innate?
A
no, has to be coordinated and learned
5
Q
What sort of animals develop locomotion quickest?
A
prey animals
6
Q
what does tetrapedal mean?
A
locomotion using four limbs
7
Q
are quadrupeds and bipeds tetrapedal?
A
yes
8
Q
what are the modes of tetrapedal movement?
A
cursorial fossorial saltatorial aboreal aerial
9
Q
describe cursorial tetrapedal movement
A
running gait (e.g. horses)
10
Q
describe fossorial tetrapedal movement
A
digging/burrowing action (e.g. moles)
11
Q
describe saltatorial tetrapedal movement
A
hopping (e.g. kangaroos) (bipedal motion usually)
12
Q
describe aboretal tetrapedal movement
A
movement among trees/ climbing motion (e.g. chimpanzees)
13
Q
describe aerial tetrapedal movement
A
flying
14
Q
why are birds still classed as quadrupeds?
A
wings are formed from adapted forelimbs
15
Q
What are gaits generated by in the brain?
A
central pattern generator
16
Q
What sort of animal were the early tetrapods?
A
amphibians
17
Q
What effect did the loss of pectoral girdle attachment have on early tetrapods?
A
increased cranium mobility
movement of head could become independent of body
18
Q
why did girdles and limbs need to become stronger and more completely ossified?
A
to support body weigh on land. In water body weight is almost totally supported, this is not the case on land and the skeleton needs to hold up the animal
19
Q
How did the basal fin alter in early tetrapods?
A
forelimb functional enlargement of basal fin.
20
Q
What are the 3 theories as to why fish moved from land to water?
A
move in between water in times of drought
to escape predation in the water
to find food on land
21
Q
which of the 3 theories as to why fish moved from land to water is the most probable?
A
to escape predation, fish still lay their young in shallow water where it is difficult for predators to access
22
Q
Describe the posture of early tetrapods
A
sprawled (e.g. alligator)
23
Q
Describe the movement of early tetrapods
A
lateral flexion of body to move (tail flicking from side to side) and over hand recovery of limb (like front crawl)
24
Q
Describe the plane of movement in later tetrapods
A
movement in saggital plane
25
In what direction does the vertebral column flex in later tetrapods?
vertically
26
where are the limbs located in relation to the body in later tetrapods?
underneath the body
27
How have prey animals adapted to enable them to survive in open areas?
cursorial modifications include increased stride length with longer limbs that cover greater distance with each stride
28
How have predatory animals adapted to enable them to survive in open areas?
increased flexion and extension of vetebral column increases stride length. Limbs are not as long as prey animals' but are more powerful
29
How does the cursorial movement of prey compare to that of predator?
prey movement is easier to maintain over time but predators have faster and more explosive movements
30
Describe plantigrade stance
walking on soles of the feet
31
What bones are in contact with the ground in plantigrade stance?
tarsal (heel) bone, metatarsals and phalanges
32
What bones are in contact with the ground in digitigrade stance?
only phalanges
33
How is the ankle (tarsus) positioned in digitigrade stance?
elevated/ not in contact with the ground
34
What are the 3 modifications of limbs?
plantigrade, digitigrade, unguligrade
35
What bones are in contact with the ground in unguligrade stance?
only the distal phalanx (tip of one of 2 digits)
36
what is the benefit of unguligrade stance?
limbs are as long as possible to offer greater ground cover and speed
37
What limb modification stance do many predators have?
digitigrade
38
What limb modification stance do many prey animals have?
unguligrade
39
How is a horses lower limb adapted for efficient movement?
reduced muscle mass in lower leg to reduce the energy required to lift a leg off the ground. tendons and ligaments attach muscle to lower limb/joints
40
What is involved in bipedal locomotion?
movement on 2 rear limbs
41
What are the 2 types of bipeds?
habitual and intermittent
42
What effect have human skeletal modifications had on our ability to walk?
can carry all weight on rear limbs
plantigrade stature allows us to carry more weight
forelimbs have become highly developed
curved vertebral column helps reduce effort to balance
43
what are the 6 functions of the skeleton?
```
protection
shape
support
movement
storage
haematopoiesis
```
44
What movement does the separation of radius and ulna allow?
pronation and suprination
45
How do different shapes of species arise from a very similar skeleton?
proportions and relationships of bones with each other are different between species
46
What is stored within bones and is under hormone control?
calcium and phosphate
47
How can calcium or phosphate deficit affect bones?
makes them weaker
48
How is growth and strengthening of bone achieved?
weigh baring creates micro cracks that are filled and so become stronger
49
\what is the axial skeleton formed of?
skull, mandible, vertebral column and bony thorax
50
what is the role of the axial skeleton?
protects vital organs and gives shape
51
what is the appendicular skeleton formed of?
limbs (appendages), pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle
52
How do hindlimbs/legs attach to the body at the pelvic girdle?
sacro-illiac joint
53
How do forelimbs/arms attach to the body at the pectoral girdle?
clavicle in humans but via the synsarcosis in quadrupeds to aid impact absorption
54
What is the function of the appendicular skeleton?
to allow mobility
55
How is the human spine different in babies than in adults?
c shaped when babies are born, this changes as they lift their heads and begin to weightbare. By adulthood they should be S shaped
56
What are the 3 types of specialist bone?
sesamoid bones, pneumatic bones, splanchnic bones
57
where are sesamoid bones located?
within tendons or ligament
58
what is the function of sesamoid bones?
run near joints to allow tendon to move smoothly over the joint. Reduces friction on tendon
59
give an example of sesamoid bone
patella
60
where are pneumatic bones located?
maxiallary/frontal bones of the skull
61
What is the function of pneumatic bones?
contain air filled sinuses which reduce the weight of bones (e.g. skull is very strong but not too heavy
62
where do splanchnic bones develop?
in soft tissue organs
63
what is a key feature of splanchnic bones?
unattached to the rest of the skeleton
64
give an example of splanchnic bone
os penis
65
What are the two surface features of bones?
projections/processes
| depressions/cavities
66
What are projections/processes often used for in bones?
attachment for muscles, tendons and ligaments
67
What are depressions/cavities often used for?
passages for nerves and blood vessels
68
On what basis are bones classified?
shape
69
What are the 4 classifications of bone?
long bones
short bones
flat bones
irregular bones
70
where are long bones mostly found?
limb bones (e.g. femur)
71
where are short bones found?
carpal (wrist) and tarsal (ankle) bones
72
Where are flat bones found?
skull, scapula and ribs
73
where are irregular bones found?
vertebrae
74
What type of bone is mostly contained in long bones?
compact bone
75
Describe the shape of long bones
typically longer than wide, have a shaft with heads at both ends
76
What is the key reason for the cylindrical shape of long bones?
strength under compression while standing
77
What shape are most short bones?
cube-shape
78
what type of bone do most short bones contain?
spongy with an outer layer of compact bone
79
describe the shape of flat bones
thin, flattened and usually curved
80
What is the structure of flat bones?
thin layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone, no hollow in centre
81
describe the shape of irregular bones
irregular!
82
in what anatomical plane are irregular bones usually found?
medial/midline
83
What is the diaphysis?
shaft of long bone
84
what type of bone is the diaphysis composed of?
compact bone
85
what is the epiphysis?
ends of the long bones
86
what is epiphysis mostly comprised of?
spongy bone
87
What is the medullary cavity?
hollow centre of long bones
88
where is the periosteum located?
outside covering of the diaphysis
89
What is the periosteum?
fibrous connective tissue membrane
90
What does periosteum provide?
connection between bone and tendon
91
What is endosteum?
connective tissue within the medullary cavity
92
What type of tissue is yellow marrow formed of?
adipose tissue
93
where is haematopoetic tissue located?
in red marrow
94
What do arteries supply bone with?
nutrients
95
What is able to leave bone cells due to the blood supply?
blood cells formed in the bone marrow
96
describe the anatomy of flat, short and irregular bones
cancellous (spongy) bone surrounded by cortical (compact) bone
97
is there diaphysis or epiphysis in flat, short and irregular bones?
no
98
is there a medullary cavity in flat, short and irregular bones?
no
99
What are the two types of bone?
compact (cortical/hard) and cancellous (spongy)
100
describe long bone structure in young animals
large medullary cavity
| diaphysis is larger due to the greater need for haemotopoesis in young animals
101
describe long bone internal structure in adult animals
medullary cavity is smaller and has been filled partially by epiphysis
more yellow marrow, and less red marrow as reduced need for haematopoesis
102
What systems make up compact bone?
haversion systems
103
What are blood vessels located within, in cortical bone?
haversion canals
104
what do osteons form around?
blood vessels
105
How are blood vessels aligned in long bone?
parallel to long axis of bone
106
What do osteons provide for the bone?
strength
107
what are concentric lamellae?
circles of bone matrix around canal
108
what is contained within the central canal?
endosteum, blood vessels, nerves
109
what do canaliculi do?
radiate between lacunae and aid communication of osteocytes
110
What are lacunae?
location of osteocytes between rings
111
What is the internal structure of trabecular bone?
interconnecting rods and plates of bones
112
What is within the spaces between trabeculae?
andipose tissue (yellow marrow)
113
Where do blood vessels run in trabecular bone?
in the andipose tissue
114
How are trabecular orientated?
along lines of stress
115
What do osteocytes form in trabecular bone?
concentric rings and lacunae
116
How does the trabecular bone remodel following injury/stress?
will reorientate itself following the break to increase bone strength
117
what is ossification?
the process by which bone is formed
118
Is bone constantly changed and remodelled?
yes
119
What are the 2 types of ossification?
intermembranous and endochondral
120
Where does bone develop during intermembranous ossification?
develops along fibrous tissue precursor, the bone material is deposited along this structure
121
where does endochondral ossification occur?
in the long bones
122
What is the precursor in endochondral ossification?
cartilage precursor
123
How does ossification occur during endochondral ossification?
skeleton model is created from cartilage and the bone is laid down on this
124
Are blood vessels present before or after the formation of bone?
before
125
what are the 3 types of bone cells?
osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
126
What do osteoblasts do?
lay down bone
127
where are osteoblasts derived from in the embryo?
mesenchymal stem cells
128
How do osteoclasts lay down bone?
form collagen matrix within pre-cursor tissues, bone is formed from calcification of matrix
129
What is calcification?
laying down of bone
130
What does calcium add to the bone?
strength
131
what are osteocytes formed from?
mature osteoblasts in the lacunae
132
what do osteoblasts control within the bone?
local bone formation/reabsorption
133
what are osteoclasts formed from?
macrophage stem cells
134
what do osteoclasts do?
use enzymes to reabsorb/remove bone through deminiralisation
135
what does deminuralisation of bone cause?
loss of strength
136
what two cells must balance their activity?
osteoclasts and osteoblasts
137
Describe the process of intermembranous ossification
development of ossification centre
calcification
formation of trabeculae
development of periosteum
138
what are osteoclasts surrounded by in intermembranous ossification?
trabeculae
139
describe the process of endochondral ossification
complete skeleton formed of cartilage matrix
osteoblasts migrate and begin calcification from primary ossification centre in diaphysis
osteoclasts migrate and begin to lay down bone towards end of diaphysis
bone is laid down seperatly in epiphysis
separated by cartilage growth plate.
growth plate fuses and is calcified at maturity when bone growth finishes
140
where is the primary ossifcation centre located during endochondral ossification?
diaphysis
141
what is the name of the ossification centre that osteoblast migrate to after the primary ossification centre?
secondary
142
when does bone growth stop in animals?
mature adults
143
what is the epiphyseal plate?
the growth plate of bone
144
where is the growth plate located?
between epiphysis and diaphyisis
145
what is the growth plate made of?
cartilage
146
what type of cartilage is the cartilage skeleton formed of?
hyaline
147
what is rickets a deficit of?
nutritional vitamin D and phosphorus
148
What happens to bones in rickets sufferers?
fail to calcify and become bowed
149
why do joints appear swollen in rickets sufferers?
enlargement of epiphyses
150
When does the growth plate fuse?
at maturity
151
where does fusion of growth plate vary?
in different bones
152
what is vitamin D required for?
absorption of calcium from diet
153
how can vitamin D be manufactured in the body?
by UV light (sunlight)
154
why do epiphyses enlarge in rickets sufferers?
to compensate for lack of support provided by diaphysis due to lack of calcium
155
what is a joint a connection between?
bones
156
what does a joint form?
an articulation
157
what is a joint also known as?
arthrosis
158
where are synovial joints most often found?
the limbs
159
what bone surface does articular cartilage cover?
external surface of epiphysis
160
what type of cartilage is articular cartilage made of?
hyaline
161
what is the purpose of hyaline cartilage at joint surface?
decreases friction between 2 bones
162
what is the function of synovial fluid?
lubricates and nourishes cartilage
163
what is the purpose of the fibrous joint cartilage?
limits motion of joint
164
what is the fibrous joint capsule continuous with?
periosteum
165
what is the purpose of ligaments?
limit movement and stabilise joint
166
what are ligaments made of?
thickened areas of connective tissue
167
what is the function of the synovial membrane?
secretes/filters synovial fluid
168
where is the synovial membrane located?
lines joint cavity
169
why is cartilage so difficult to repair?
no blood supply or nerves so little nutrients and cartilage is often severely damaged before pain is felt
170
what 2 ways can joints be classified?
function and structure
171
what is the functional classification of joints based on?
degree of motion
172
what are the 3 functional classifications of joints?
synarthrosis
amphiarthrosis
diarthrosis
173
what are synarthrosis joints?
those with no/little movement
174
what are amphiarthrosis joints?
those with some movements
175
what are diarthrosis joints?
those with free movement
176
what is the structural classification of joints based on?
connective tissue types that binds the bones
177
what are the 3 types of structural joint classification?
fibrous
cartilaginous
synovial
178
give an example of syntharthrosis/fibrous joints
sutures of the skull
179
give an example of amphiarthrosis/cartilaginous joints
intravertebral disks
180
give an example of diarthrosis/synovial joints
hip joint
181
what are fibrous joints united by?
dense regular fibrous connective tissue
182
are there cartilage cells in fibrous joints?
little/no
183
is there a joint cavity in fibrous joints?
no
184
is there movement in fibrous joints?
no
185
give examples of types of fibrous joints
sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses
186
what are gomphoses?
specialised joints that form join between tooth and bone. Peg into socket held in place with bundles of connective tissue
187
what types of cartilaginous joints are there?
synchondroses or symphyses
188
what are the two subdivisions of cartilaginous joints?
primary and secondary
189
where are primary and secondary cartilaginous joints most often found?
primary: growth plates
secondary: in adults
190
what are primary cartilaginous joints joined by?
hyaline cartilage (type 2)
191
what are secondary cartilaginous joints joined by?
fibrocartilage (has a higher collagen content) - type 1 and 2
192
how are synovial joints subdivided?
by their type of movement
193
what are the 6 types of synovial joints?
```
plane
pivot
hinge
condyloid
saddle
ball and socket
```
194
where are plane joints found?
carpus and tarsus
195
how do bones move in plane joints?
slide across the flat surface of each other
196
what are the range of movements found in plane joints?
biaxial and triaxial
197
where are hinge joints found?
elbow
198
how do bones move in hinge joints?
only flexion and extension
199
what are the range of movements found in hinge joints?
rotate around each other in a unilateral direction
200
where are pivot joints found?
head of radius and radial notch of ulna
201
how do bones move in pivot joints?
rotational uniaxial movement
202
where are condyloid joints found?
carpus
203
how does movement in pivot joints compare to plane joints?
rounded surface rather than flat
204
where are saddle joints found?
in the thumb
205
how do bones move in saddle joints?
biaxial in two directions in relation to each other
206
where are ball and socket joints found?
hip and shoulder
207
what is the range of movement like in ball and socket joints?
offers widest range of movement of any joint
208
What are the 10 types of movement at synovial joints?
```
flexion/extension
abduction/adduction
circumduction
rotation
elevation/depression
protraction/retraction
inversion/eversion
supination/pronation
opposition
dorsiflexion/plantar flexion
```
209
what movement occurs during flexion/extension?
flexion: angle is reduced between 2 bones
extension: angle is increased between 2 bones
210
what movement occurs during abduction/adduction?
abduction: moving away from body/midline
adduction: movement towards body/midline
211
what movement occurs during circumduction?
movement in a circular pattern
212
what movement occurs during rotation?
body parts twist on their own axis
213
what movement occurs during elevation depression?
movement above and below horizontal (e.g. shrugging shoulders)
214
what movement occurs during protraction/retraction?
protraction; movement cranialy and anteriorally
| retraction: movement caudally and posteriorly
215
what movement occurs during inversion and eversion?
inversion: movement towards median plane
eversion: movement away from median plane
216
what movement occurs during opposition?
movement of 2 bones against each other
217
what movement occurs during pronation and supination?
pronation: palm is moved to face downwards
supination: palm is moved to face upwards
218
what movement occurs during dorsiflexion and plantar flexion?
dorsiflexion: ankle flexes to bring toes towards shin/wrist brings hand towards arm
plantar flexion: ankle extends to bring toes away from shin/ palmar aspect of wrist towards anterior arm (in AP)
219
What movement appears in hocks of quadrupeds?
flexion and extension
220
what are the 3 types of muscle?
smooth, striated(skeletal) and cardiac
221
where is striated muscle attached?
to the skeleton
222
what does striated muscle bring about?
movement
223
what is the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic muscles?
extrinsic muscles run from one region of the body to another and move that area in relation to the body
intrinsic muscles act on joints contained within an area of the body. They move the joint which they cross
224
what happens during contraction and relaxation?
contraction; nerve impulse causes shortening of muscle fibres
relaxation: no signal to the muscle cells
225
what is muscle tone?
the state of tension within the muscle
226
what does high muscle tone aid?
stability in posture
227
what is the difference between hypertrophy and atrophy of muscles?
hypertrophy: muscles increase in size/ are larger
atrophy: muscles reduce in size/ become smaller
228
what are the 6 main functions of skeletal muscle?
```
movement of body parts and organ content
maintain posture and provide stability
communication (e.g. speech and writing)
control of openings and passageways
body heat production
aid venous return
```
229
what is the origin tendon of skeletal muscle?
attaches to stationary end of skeletal muscle
230
what is the belly of muscle?
the thicker, middle region of muscle. Contains the muscle fibres. More than one can be seen in some muscles
231
what is the insertion tendon of skeletal muscle?
attachment to the mobile end of muscle
232
what can be used to predict muscle actions?
origin and insertion
joints/regions the muscle crosses
muscle fibre orientation
233
what are the 2 muscle groups of axial muscles?
epaxial muscles
| hypaxial muscles
234
what do epaxial muscles do?
extensors of the vertebral column
235
what do hypaxial muscles do?
flexors of the neck and tail, includes the abdominal muscles
236
where are epaxial muscles located?
dorsal/posterior to line of transverse processes
237
where are hypaxial muscles located?
ventral/anterior to line of transverse processes
238
name the major adductors and flexors in the forelimb
pectorals: forelimb adductors
biceps: elbow flexor
carpal and digital flexors
239
name the major adductors and flexors in the hindlimb
hamstrings: stifle flexor
240
name the major abductors and extensors in the forelimb
triceps: elbow extensor
| carpal and digital extensors
241
name the major abductors and extensors in the hindlimb
gluteals: hip extensor
quadriceps: stifle extensor
gastrocnemius: tarsal extensor
digital extensors
242
what are the 3 skeletal muscle shapes?
fusiform
convergent
parallel
243
describe the shape of fusiform muscles
thick in the middle and tapered at the ends
244
describe the shape of convergent muscles
broad at origin and tapering to narrower insertion
245
describe the shape of parallel muscles
parellel fasicles (rectus abdominus)
246
give an example of fusiform muscles
biceps brachii
247
give an example of parallel muscles
6 pack (rectus abdominis)
248
what are circular muscles?
act as sphincters in rings around body openings
249
what are pennate muscles?
fascicles insert obliquely on a tendon
250
what are the 3 types of pennate muscles?
unipennate (one direction of fibres), bipennate (two directions of fibres), multipennate (mulitple fibre alighnements attaching to one tendon)
251
give an example of pennate muscle
deltoid
252
what do muscle groups share?
blood supply and nerves
253
where is the deep fascia located?
between adjacent muscles which allows them to move over each other
254
where is superficial fascia located?
between skin and muscle
255
what type of tissue is contained in the superficial fascia?
adipose
256
what are the 3 connective tissue types found in muscle?
epimysium
perimysium
endomysium
257
describe epimysium
covers whole muscle belly
| blends into deep fascia that separates muscles
258
describe perimysium
slightly thicker layer of connective tissue
| surrounds fascicle
259
describe endomysium
thin layer of areolar tissue surrounding each cell
| allows room for capillaries and nerve fibres
260
which layer of muscle connective tissue is continuous with the muscle tendon?
epimysium
261
what are the 2 muscle fibre types?
type 1 - slow twitch
| type 2 - fast twitch
262
how do fast and slow twitch fibres differ in histological appearance?
slow twitch are paler and thinner
263
which of the two muscle fibre types fatigue quickly?
fast twitch
264
which of the two muscle fibre types react more quickly?
fast twitch
265
what is the basic contractile unit of skeletal muscle?
sarcomere
266
what is the hierarchy within muscles?
sarcomere (containing myofilaments)
myofibrils (bands of sarcomeres)
muscle fibres (muscle cells)
bundles (fasicles)
267
which 2 bands within the sarcomere show the level of contraction within the sarcomere?
I band and H band
268
what are motor neurons?
specialised nerve cells which initiate contraction of skeletal muscle
269
what does a single motor axon synapse with at a neuromuscular junction?
muscle
270
what is the strength of muscle contraction determined by?
the number of muscle fibres that are recruited rather than the level of contraction
271
what are muscle spindles?
sensory organs which send information to the brain about the level of streach in muscle and whether the contraction should be increased
272
what area of the brain does information from the muscle spindles get relayed to?
cerebellum
273
what do tendons connect to each other?
bone to muscle
274
what do ligaments connect to each other?
bone to bone
275
what do collateral ligaments do?
limit movements of joints medially and laterally
276
where are collateral ligaments usually found?
medially and laterally on most hinge joints
277
what are cruciate ligaments?
ligaments within the knee which restrict movement
278
What are retinaculae?
loops of ligamentous tissue which help to restrain tendons
279
where are retinaculae found?
near joints to stop the tendons from moving out of place
280
what are capsular ligaments?
small ligaments which support and stabilise joints
281
where are capsular ligaments found?
within joint capsule
282
what ligament type is found extra-capsularly?
collateral
283
what ligament type is found intra-capsularly?
cruciate
284
what sort of movement do ligaments prevent?
abnormal or excessive movement
285
what is epimysium continuous with in direct attachment to bone?
periosteum
286
give an example of where direct attachment of tendon to bone occurs
intercostal muscles
287
what is epimysium continuous with in indirect attachment to bone?
continuous with tendon
| or merges into periosteum as perforating fibres
288
what is aponeurosis?
merge of epimysium into periosteum as perforating fibres
289
why will stress on a tendon cause it to tear before it causes it to pull out from the bone or muscle?
there is a very strong connection with epimysium and periosteum
290
what are tendons an extension of?
the muscle belly
291
what do tendons transmit force between?
muscle to bone
292
what does the connective tissue of tendons and ligaments contain?
```
collagen
cells
few fibroblasts
matrix
water
proteoglycans
some elastin
```
293
what do crimped fibres allow in tendons and ligments?
stretching of tendons and ligaments
294
why do tendons and ligaments tend to snap from the centre outwards when over stretched?
less crimp in central fibres
295
how do tendons attach?
collagen fibres blend with perimysium at muscle belly and periosteum at other end
296
how do ligaments attach?
collagen fibres bind with periosteum and thickenings of the joint capsule
297
do tendons or ligaments contain more collagen?
tendons
298
which fibres of tendons or ligaments are more parallel and more compact?
tendons
299
do tendons or ligaments have a better blood supply?
tendons
300
what are golgi tendon organs?
sensory organs in the tendon which attach to the bone
301
what is the function of golgi tendon organs
sense shortening/tension within muscles and relay this information to the brain
