Lifespan Development Flashcards
Phenotype v Genotype
A persons observed characteristics
A persons genetic inheritance
Five levels of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model
Microsystem - a child’s immediate environment (home, school)
Mesosystem - interactions between immediate environment
Exosystem - elements of broader environment that impacts immediate environment (school board, parents employers, mass media)
Macrosystem - culture, politics, economic conditions
Chronosystem - environmental events that occur over the lifespan
Rutter’s Risk Indicators
Severe marital discord Low SES Overcrowded family Parental criminality Maternal psychopathology Placement of child outside the home
Protective factors for Rutter’s high risk children
Experience fewer stressors after birth
Easy temperament and good social adjustment
Provided with stable support from a caregiver
Canalization
When genotype restricts a phenotype to a small number of possible outcomes
Three types of gene-environment correlation
Passive genotype-environment correlation (child inherits traits and parents provide environment to support them)
Evocative genotype-environment correlation (child’s traits impact how others respond to them and reinforce their genetic makeup)
Active genotype-environment correlation (child finds environments that are consistent with their traits)
Epigenesis
Relationship Between environment and genetics is bidirectional and ongoing (with interactions influencing next steps
Ethology v Evolutionary Psychology
Ethology - study of behavior in natural habitats (instincts, drives, adaptation)
Evolutionary Psychology - study of mental emotional adaptation that increased chances for survival
Critical v Sensitive Periods
CP - distinct, specific, predetermined periods when an organism is especially sensitive to stimuli that can have a positive or negative impact on development (Lorenz, language acquisition, attachment)
SP - longer in duration, flexible, not as tied to developmental or maturational age
Stages of prenatal development
Germinal (first two weeks) - zygote
Embryonic (3-8 weeks) - embryo
Fetal (9 weeks until birth) - fetus
Two major sources of birth defects
Chromosomal Disorders
Teratogens
Autosomal disorder v sex-linked disorder
Autosomal - disorder is carried on an autosome (22 pairs of chromosomes that are not linked to sex)
Sex - disorder carried on the 23rd chromosome pair that determines sex
PKU
Phenylketonuria
Autosomal recessive
Can’t metabolize phenylalanine (bread, dairy, eggs)
Associated with severe intellectual disability
Down Sydrome
Trisomy 21 (three 21st chromosomes)
Intellectual disability, physical features, regarded physical growth, increased susceptibility to leukemia, Alzheimer’s, and heart defects
Aneuploidy
Disorder due to a variation in chrosomal number
Kleinfelter Syndrome
XXY in males
Small genitals, breasts, no sexual interest, sterile, learning disability
Turner Syndrome
Female with only one X chromosome
Short, webbed neck, drooping eyelids, no secondary sex characteristics, cognitive deficits
Stage when teratogens can cause the most damage
3-8 weeks
Embryonic stage
FAS and FASD
FAS is more severe
When drinks a shitload, esp in second half of first trimester
Facial abnormalities, organ issues, vision and hearing impairment, cognitive deficits, behavioral issues
Cocaine as a teratogen
Babies born addicted
Issues last at least into early school years
High pitched cry, trembling, feeding and sleep issues, exaggerated startle, irritability, hard to comfort
Effects of malnutrition on fetal development
Death, low birth weight, immune system issues, intellectual disability
In third trimester, can lead to brain development issues
Limited folic acid can lead to spina bifida
Premature v SGA
Premature - born before 37 weeks, many survive with medical intervention these days, outcomes are fine
SGA - weight below 10% for gestational age, slow development, much worse outcomes
Brain development in newborns
Initially produces more neurons than it needs (then undergoes pruning)
Life sustaining structures fully formed, cerebral cortex is almost undeveloped with the PFC developing into mid-20s
Areas of the brain that develop first in newborns
Sensory and motor areas
Brain development occurs in what two directions
Cephalocaudal (Head to tail)
Proximodistal (center to limbs)
Where is brain atrophy seen most commonly in aging brains
Frontal lobes
Where are new neurons most often created in aging brains
Hippocampus
Neurogenesis
Brain compensating for neuronal loss by forming new synaptic connections and neural pathways
Babinski
Rooting
Moro
Stepping reflexes
Toes fan outward when soles are tickled
Turn head in direction of touch on cheek
Flings arms and legs out, then back in, when startled or lost support
Coordinated walking movement when help upright and feet touch ground
Behaviors used to study perceptual development in children
High amplitude sucking
Reaching
Heart and respiration rates
(Look for habituation and dehabituation)
Which sense is least developed at birth
Vision
Adult vision develops around what age
Six months
Visual cues that babies prefer
High contrast images
Faces
Then faces of mom
Age of infants depth perception
4-6mo
Auditory localization
Babies ability to turn head in the direction of a sound
Lose the ability between 2-4mo, then regain and improves
Infants ability to distinguish voices occurs at what age
3mo
Prefer their moms voice
Research on pain exposure and infants
Full-term babies who experience severe medical pain show a heightened reaction to pain later on
Pre-term babies who experience severe medical pain show a lowered reaction to pain later on
1-3mo milestones
Raise chin
Turn head side to side
Can bring objects in hand to mouth
4-6mo milestones
Rolls over
Sits with support
Grasps
First teeth 5-9mo
7-9mo milestones
Sit without support
Crawling
Pulls self up at 10mo with assistance of furniture
10-12mo milestones
Stands alone
Walks with help
Takes first steps alone at 12mo
13-15mo milestones
Walks alone with wide gait
Crawl up stairs
Scribbles spontaneously
16-24mo milestones
Runs clumsily
Walks up stairs with assistance
24mo: stairs alone, kicks ball, turn pages
50% of kids can toilet during the day
25-48mo
Jumps with both feet
Dress self simply
Toilet trained
4yo - hand dominance
Are there developmental differences in children who receive early training for motor development
No
Gender differences in motor development
Girls - flexibility, strength, balance, agility
Boys - physical skills with strength and gross motor abilities
Consequences of early maturation in boys
Popularity, strength, athleticism
Dissatisfaction with body image
Increased risk for delinquency, substance use, depression
Consequences of late maturation in boys
Appraised by peers as being more childish
More attention-seeking behaviors
Lower self-confidence
Susceptible to depression
Consequences of early maturation in girls
Poor self-concept More likely to engage in substance use as sexual activity Lower academic achievement Unpopular with peers Depression and eating disorder risk
Consequences of late maturation in girls
Dislike being treated like “little girls”
Dissatisfied with physical appearance
Outperform peers in academic achievement
The consequences of early or late maturation are most severe when…
The adolescent perceives themself as different from their peers
Visual changes in adulthood
By age 40 there is some presbyopia (inability to see close up)
Most experience visual changes by 65 that can interfere with daily activity - loss of acuity, light sensitivity, poor depth perception, slowed visual processing
Most older adults do not experience significant hearing loss until
After age 75
Behavioral slowing in older adults is responsible for…
Slowed reaction times and generally slower movement and sensory abilities
Biggest predictor of outcomes in children with chronic illness
Illness severity
Factors predictive of good adjustment in children with chronic illness
Higher SES
Two-parent Family
Little visible physical disfiguration
Healthy parental adjustment
Early substance abuse behaviors in adolescents are associated with what correlates
Feelings of alienation, impulsivity, indecisiveness, subjective distress
Gateway drugs for adolescents
Tobacco
Alcohol
- then -
Marijuana
The biggest predictor of sexual activity in later adulthood
Sexual activity in middle adulthood
Biggest reason for decline in sexual activity in older adults
Physical health issues in men
What is responsible for the rapid increase in brain volume and weight in babies
Formation of glial cells!
Tenets of Piaget’s theory of development
People construct higher levels of knowledge from elements contributed through biological maturation and the environment
Development is driven by cognitive equilibrium (equilibration)
Adaption is resolved through what two complementary processes
(Per Piaget)
Assimilation - fit new information into old schemas
Accommodation - change preexisting schemas to fit new information
(Typically assimilation occurs first, and when it is unsuccessful accommodation happens)
Four stages of cognitive development per Piaget
Sensorimotor - circular reactions, object permanence
Preoperational - precausal thinking, magical thinking, animism
Concrete operational - conservation and horizontal decalage
Formal operations - adolescent egocentrism
Sensorimotor stages
1 - infant utilizes their reflexes (b - 1mo)
2 - repeats pleasurable events with their body (circular reactions, 1-4mo)
3 - repeats pleasurable events by manipulating others (secondary circular reactions, 4-8mo)
4 - more complicated action sequences (coordinated secondary circular reactions) object permanence
5 - tertiary circular reactions, varying an action to discover its consequences (12-18mo)
6 - symbolic thought, anticipates consequence (18-24mo)
Object permanence
Develops during sensorimotor substance 4
People and objects continue to exist, even when they are out of sight
Accomplishments in the sensorimotor stage
Object permanence
Basic causality (events have certain outcomes)
Deferred imitation (imitating another persons behav hour or days later)
Symbolic (make believe) play
Age of the sensorimotor stage
Birth to two years
Age of the preoperational stage
2-7 years
Strengths of preoperational children
Symbolic function allows children to learn through language, mental images, and other symbols
Can solve problems mentally
Sophisticated symbolic play (incorporates symbolic objects too)
Struggles of preoperational children
Precausal reasoning - incomplete cause and effect understanding (magical thinking and animism)
Egocentrism - cannot take another persons POV
Irreversibility, contraption (focus on most noticeable features of an object)
Examples of precausal (transductive) reasoning
Magical thinking - belief that thinking about something will cause it to occur
Animism - attributing humanlike qualities to inanimate objects
Age of concrete operational stage
7-11/12 years
Strengths of children in concrete operational stage
Can form logical rules for transforming and manipulating objects
(Master conservation - an objects physical properties don’t change even if it’s appearance does)
Occurs in this order: number, liquid, length, weight, displacement volume
(According to horizontal decalage)
Horizontal decalage
Piaget
Describes the general acquisition of conservation abilities (and other abilities) in a specific stage of development
Age of the formal operational stage
11/12 years +
Strengths of formal operational children
Think abstractly
Identity competing hypotheses for a problem and figure out how to test them
Adolescent egocentrism
During formal operational stage (Piaget)
Composed of:
Imaginary audience - always the center of attention
Personal fable - you’re unique and free form natural laws that govern everyone else
Information Processing approach to cognitive development
Everything is akin to a computer or computer programming
Improvements in memory or abilities are due to improved processing speed, more memory space, greater automaticity…
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
General view of cognitive development
Cognitive development initially occurs INTERPERSONALLY, and then INTRAPERSONALLY (when the child internalized what they’ve learned)
Zone of proximal development
Vygotsky
The difference between a child’s current developmental stage, and the stage just beyond (that can be reached through scaffolding)
Scaffolding
Vygotsky
Instruction, assistance, and support
Most effective when it involves modeling, providing cues, and encouragement of the child to think about plans of action
Theory of mind
The ability to make inferences about another persons representational state, and the ability to predict then what their behavior will be
Three stages of ToM
1 - ages 2-3 - other people have different emotions
2 - ages 4-5 - other peoples thoughts may be inaccurate but they will still act on them
3 - age 5 - actions are not always consistent with someone’s beliefs, people interpret situations differently, may feel many ways about a situation
Use of memory strategies in children
Due to increases in working memory speed and capacity, and an expanded knowledge base
Preschoolers use accidental memory strategies, that work sometimes and sometimes not (if taught new strategies, may or may not use them in new situations)
By age 9/10, memory strategies become effortful and fine tuned (rehearsal, organization, elaboration)
Improvements in memory strategies is lead my the development of metacogntion
Synchrony effect
Time for optimum completion of certain tasks varies by age
Earlier adults - at night
Older adults - in the morning
Infantile amnesia
Explanation for why we don’t remember things before age 3 or 4
Could be due to the memory centers being not formed yet
Could be due to the absence of language to help encode memory
Retention function
Greater recall of events in the last 20 years
Reminiscence bump
Recalling many memories form 10-30years old
May be explained by developing sense of self, experiencing more novel situations
Impact of age on memory
Decline in more explicit than implicit memory (explains why you forget the contents of a grocery list)
Also see declines in episodic and SECONDARY (LT) memory
Reasons for memory decline in older age
Slowed processing speed
Difficulty keeping irrelevant information out of working memory