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eppp > Lifespan Development > Flashcards

Lifespan Development Flashcards

1
Q

Phenotype v Genotype

A

A persons observed characteristics

A persons genetic inheritance

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2
Q

Five levels of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model

A

Microsystem - a child’s immediate environment (home, school)
Mesosystem - interactions between immediate environment
Exosystem - elements of broader environment that impacts immediate environment (school board, parents employers, mass media)
Macrosystem - culture, politics, economic conditions
Chronosystem - environmental events that occur over the lifespan

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3
Q

Rutter’s Risk Indicators

A 
Severe marital discord
Low SES
Overcrowded family
Parental criminality
Maternal psychopathology
Placement of child outside the home
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4
Q

Protective factors for Rutter’s high risk children

A

Experience fewer stressors after birth
Easy temperament and good social adjustment
Provided with stable support from a caregiver

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5
Q

Canalization

A

When genotype restricts a phenotype to a small number of possible outcomes

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6
Q

Three types of gene-environment correlation

A

Passive genotype-environment correlation (child inherits traits and parents provide environment to support them)

Evocative genotype-environment correlation (child’s traits impact how others respond to them and reinforce their genetic makeup)

Active genotype-environment correlation (child finds environments that are consistent with their traits)

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7
Q

Epigenesis

A

Relationship Between environment and genetics is bidirectional and ongoing (with interactions influencing next steps

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8
Q

Ethology v Evolutionary Psychology

A

Ethology - study of behavior in natural habitats (instincts, drives, adaptation)

Evolutionary Psychology - study of mental emotional adaptation that increased chances for survival

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9
Q

Critical v Sensitive Periods

A

CP - distinct, specific, predetermined periods when an organism is especially sensitive to stimuli that can have a positive or negative impact on development (Lorenz, language acquisition, attachment)

SP - longer in duration, flexible, not as tied to developmental or maturational age

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10
Q

Stages of prenatal development

A

Germinal (first two weeks) - zygote

Embryonic (3-8 weeks) - embryo

Fetal (9 weeks until birth) - fetus

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11
Q

Two major sources of birth defects

A

Chromosomal Disorders

Teratogens

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12
Q

Autosomal disorder v sex-linked disorder

A

Autosomal - disorder is carried on an autosome (22 pairs of chromosomes that are not linked to sex)

Sex - disorder carried on the 23rd chromosome pair that determines sex

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13
Q

PKU

A

Phenylketonuria

Autosomal recessive

Can’t metabolize phenylalanine (bread, dairy, eggs)
Associated with severe intellectual disability

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14
Q

Down Sydrome

A

Trisomy 21 (three 21st chromosomes)

Intellectual disability, physical features, regarded physical growth, increased susceptibility to leukemia, Alzheimer’s, and heart defects

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15
Q

Aneuploidy

A

Disorder due to a variation in chrosomal number

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16
Q

Kleinfelter Syndrome

A

XXY in males

Small genitals, breasts, no sexual interest, sterile, learning disability

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17
Q

Turner Syndrome

A

Female with only one X chromosome

Short, webbed neck, drooping eyelids, no secondary sex characteristics, cognitive deficits

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18
Q

Stage when teratogens can cause the most damage

A

3-8 weeks

Embryonic stage

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19
Q

FAS and FASD

A

FAS is more severe

When drinks a shitload, esp in second half of first trimester

Facial abnormalities, organ issues, vision and hearing impairment, cognitive deficits, behavioral issues

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20
Q

Cocaine as a teratogen

A

Babies born addicted
Issues last at least into early school years

High pitched cry, trembling, feeding and sleep issues, exaggerated startle, irritability, hard to comfort

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21
Q

Effects of malnutrition on fetal development

A

Death, low birth weight, immune system issues, intellectual disability

In third trimester, can lead to brain development issues

Limited folic acid can lead to spina bifida

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22
Q

Premature v SGA

A

Premature - born before 37 weeks, many survive with medical intervention these days, outcomes are fine

SGA - weight below 10% for gestational age, slow development, much worse outcomes

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23
Q

Brain development in newborns

A

Initially produces more neurons than it needs (then undergoes pruning)

Life sustaining structures fully formed, cerebral cortex is almost undeveloped with the PFC developing into mid-20s

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24
Q

Areas of the brain that develop first in newborns

A

Sensory and motor areas

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25
Q

Brain development occurs in what two directions

A

Cephalocaudal (Head to tail)

Proximodistal (center to limbs)

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26
Q

Where is brain atrophy seen most commonly in aging brains

A

Frontal lobes

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27
Q

Where are new neurons most often created in aging brains

A

Hippocampus

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28
Q

Neurogenesis

A

Brain compensating for neuronal loss by forming new synaptic connections and neural pathways

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29
Q

Babinski
Rooting
Moro
Stepping reflexes

A

Toes fan outward when soles are tickled
Turn head in direction of touch on cheek
Flings arms and legs out, then back in, when startled or lost support
Coordinated walking movement when help upright and feet touch ground

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30
Q

Behaviors used to study perceptual development in children

A

High amplitude sucking

Reaching

Heart and respiration rates

(Look for habituation and dehabituation)

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31
Q

Which sense is least developed at birth

A

Vision

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32
Q

Adult vision develops around what age

A

Six months

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33
Q

Visual cues that babies prefer

A

High contrast images
Faces
Then faces of mom

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34
Q

Age of infants depth perception

A

4-6mo

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35
Q

Auditory localization

A

Babies ability to turn head in the direction of a sound

Lose the ability between 2-4mo, then regain and improves

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36
Q

Infants ability to distinguish voices occurs at what age

A

3mo

Prefer their moms voice

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37
Q

Research on pain exposure and infants

A

Full-term babies who experience severe medical pain show a heightened reaction to pain later on

Pre-term babies who experience severe medical pain show a lowered reaction to pain later on

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38
Q

1-3mo milestones

A

Raise chin

Turn head side to side

Can bring objects in hand to mouth

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39
Q

4-6mo milestones

A

Rolls over

Sits with support

Grasps

First teeth 5-9mo

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40
Q

7-9mo milestones

A

Sit without support

Crawling

Pulls self up at 10mo with assistance of furniture

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41
Q

10-12mo milestones

A

Stands alone

Walks with help

Takes first steps alone at 12mo

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42
Q

13-15mo milestones

A

Walks alone with wide gait

Crawl up stairs

Scribbles spontaneously

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43
Q

16-24mo milestones

A

Runs clumsily

Walks up stairs with assistance

24mo: stairs alone, kicks ball, turn pages

50% of kids can toilet during the day

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44
Q

25-48mo

A

Jumps with both feet

Dress self simply

Toilet trained

4yo - hand dominance

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45
Q

Are there developmental differences in children who receive early training for motor development

A

No

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46
Q

Gender differences in motor development

A

Girls - flexibility, strength, balance, agility

Boys - physical skills with strength and gross motor abilities

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47
Q

Consequences of early maturation in boys

A

Popularity, strength, athleticism

Dissatisfaction with body image
Increased risk for delinquency, substance use, depression

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48
Q

Consequences of late maturation in boys

A

Appraised by peers as being more childish

More attention-seeking behaviors

Lower self-confidence

Susceptible to depression

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49
Q

Consequences of early maturation in girls

A 
Poor self-concept
More likely to engage in substance use as sexual activity
Lower academic achievement
Unpopular with peers
Depression and eating disorder risk
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50
Q

Consequences of late maturation in girls

A

Dislike being treated like “little girls”

Dissatisfied with physical appearance

Outperform peers in academic achievement

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51
Q

The consequences of early or late maturation are most severe when…

A

The adolescent perceives themself as different from their peers

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52
Q

Visual changes in adulthood

A

By age 40 there is some presbyopia (inability to see close up)

Most experience visual changes by 65 that can interfere with daily activity - loss of acuity, light sensitivity, poor depth perception, slowed visual processing

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53
Q

Most older adults do not experience significant hearing loss until

A

After age 75

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54
Q

Behavioral slowing in older adults is responsible for…

A

Slowed reaction times and generally slower movement and sensory abilities

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55
Q

Biggest predictor of outcomes in children with chronic illness

A

Illness severity

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56
Q

Factors predictive of good adjustment in children with chronic illness

A

Higher SES

Two-parent Family

Little visible physical disfiguration

Healthy parental adjustment

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57
Q

Early substance abuse behaviors in adolescents are associated with what correlates

A

Feelings of alienation, impulsivity, indecisiveness, subjective distress

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58
Q

Gateway drugs for adolescents

A

Tobacco
Alcohol
- then -
Marijuana

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59
Q

The biggest predictor of sexual activity in later adulthood

A

Sexual activity in middle adulthood

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60
Q

Biggest reason for decline in sexual activity in older adults

A

Physical health issues in men

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61
Q

What is responsible for the rapid increase in brain volume and weight in babies

A

Formation of glial cells!

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62
Q

Tenets of Piaget’s theory of development

A

People construct higher levels of knowledge from elements contributed through biological maturation and the environment

Development is driven by cognitive equilibrium (equilibration)

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63
Q

Adaption is resolved through what two complementary processes
(Per Piaget)

A

Assimilation - fit new information into old schemas

Accommodation - change preexisting schemas to fit new information

(Typically assimilation occurs first, and when it is unsuccessful accommodation happens)

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64
Q

Four stages of cognitive development per Piaget

A

Sensorimotor - circular reactions, object permanence

Preoperational - precausal thinking, magical thinking, animism

Concrete operational - conservation and horizontal decalage

Formal operations - adolescent egocentrism

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65
Q

Sensorimotor stages

A

1 - infant utilizes their reflexes (b - 1mo)
2 - repeats pleasurable events with their body (circular reactions, 1-4mo)
3 - repeats pleasurable events by manipulating others (secondary circular reactions, 4-8mo)
4 - more complicated action sequences (coordinated secondary circular reactions) object permanence
5 - tertiary circular reactions, varying an action to discover its consequences (12-18mo)
6 - symbolic thought, anticipates consequence (18-24mo)

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66
Q

Object permanence

A

Develops during sensorimotor substance 4

People and objects continue to exist, even when they are out of sight

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67
Q

Accomplishments in the sensorimotor stage

A

Object permanence

Basic causality (events have certain outcomes)

Deferred imitation (imitating another persons behav hour or days later)

Symbolic (make believe) play

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68
Q

Age of the sensorimotor stage

A

Birth to two years

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69
Q

Age of the preoperational stage

A

2-7 years

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70
Q

Strengths of preoperational children

A

Symbolic function allows children to learn through language, mental images, and other symbols

Can solve problems mentally

Sophisticated symbolic play (incorporates symbolic objects too)

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71
Q

Struggles of preoperational children

A

Precausal reasoning - incomplete cause and effect understanding (magical thinking and animism)

Egocentrism - cannot take another persons POV

Irreversibility, contraption (focus on most noticeable features of an object)

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72
Q

Examples of precausal (transductive) reasoning

A

Magical thinking - belief that thinking about something will cause it to occur

Animism - attributing humanlike qualities to inanimate objects

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73
Q

Age of concrete operational stage

A

7-11/12 years

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74
Q

Strengths of children in concrete operational stage

A

Can form logical rules for transforming and manipulating objects
(Master conservation - an objects physical properties don’t change even if it’s appearance does)

Occurs in this order: number, liquid, length, weight, displacement volume
(According to horizontal decalage)

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75
Q

Horizontal decalage

A

Piaget

Describes the general acquisition of conservation abilities (and other abilities) in a specific stage of development

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76
Q

Age of the formal operational stage

A

11/12 years +

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77
Q

Strengths of formal operational children

A

Think abstractly

Identity competing hypotheses for a problem and figure out how to test them

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78
Q

Adolescent egocentrism

A

During formal operational stage (Piaget)

Composed of:
Imaginary audience - always the center of attention
Personal fable - you’re unique and free form natural laws that govern everyone else

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79
Q

Information Processing approach to cognitive development

A

Everything is akin to a computer or computer programming

Improvements in memory or abilities are due to improved processing speed, more memory space, greater automaticity…

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80
Q

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

General view of cognitive development

A

Cognitive development initially occurs INTERPERSONALLY, and then INTRAPERSONALLY (when the child internalized what they’ve learned)

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81
Q

Zone of proximal development

A

Vygotsky

The difference between a child’s current developmental stage, and the stage just beyond (that can be reached through scaffolding)

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82
Q

Scaffolding

A

Vygotsky

Instruction, assistance, and support

Most effective when it involves modeling, providing cues, and encouragement of the child to think about plans of action

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83
Q

Theory of mind

A

The ability to make inferences about another persons representational state, and the ability to predict then what their behavior will be

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84
Q

Three stages of ToM

A

1 - ages 2-3 - other people have different emotions

2 - ages 4-5 - other peoples thoughts may be inaccurate but they will still act on them

3 - age 5 - actions are not always consistent with someone’s beliefs, people interpret situations differently, may feel many ways about a situation

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85
Q

Use of memory strategies in children

A

Due to increases in working memory speed and capacity, and an expanded knowledge base

Preschoolers use accidental memory strategies, that work sometimes and sometimes not (if taught new strategies, may or may not use them in new situations)

By age 9/10, memory strategies become effortful and fine tuned (rehearsal, organization, elaboration)

Improvements in memory strategies is lead my the development of metacogntion

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86
Q

Synchrony effect

A

Time for optimum completion of certain tasks varies by age

Earlier adults - at night

Older adults - in the morning

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87
Q

Infantile amnesia

A

Explanation for why we don’t remember things before age 3 or 4

Could be due to the memory centers being not formed yet
Could be due to the absence of language to help encode memory

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88
Q

Retention function

A

Greater recall of events in the last 20 years

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89
Q

Reminiscence bump

A

Recalling many memories form 10-30years old

May be explained by developing sense of self, experiencing more novel situations

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90
Q

Impact of age on memory

A

Decline in more explicit than implicit memory (explains why you forget the contents of a grocery list)

Also see declines in episodic and SECONDARY (LT) memory

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91
Q

Reasons for memory decline in older age

A

Slowed processing speed

Difficulty keeping irrelevant information out of working memory

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92
Q

Three explanations for language development

A

Nativist - Chomsky - we have an LAD that allows us to learn language merely though exposure (biological)

Behaviorist - we learn language by observing and imitating and being reinforced by others (environmental)

Interactionists - language development is attributed to biological and environmental factors

93
Q

Interactionist approach to language

Expansion vs extension

A

Expansion - when parents adds to a child’s statement using their words and word order

Extension - when parents add information to the child’s statement (e.g. “bye bye” -> “going to work”)

94
Q

Semantic bootstrapping

A

When a child uses his or her knowledge of the meaning of words, to infer their syntactical (grammatical) category

95
Q

Syntactic bootstrapping

A

When a child uses their syntactical knowledge (context) to infer a meaning of a new word

(Not low they learn precise meanings, but rather to help them narrow the possible meanings of words)

96
Q

Surface vs deep structure

A

(Chomsky)

Surface structure - the organization of the words, phrases, or sentences
Deep - the underlying meaning of sentences

“Visiting relatives can be tiresome”
- one surface structure, two deep structures

97
Q

Phonemes v morphemes

A

Phonemes are the smallest units of sound that are understood in a language (English language has 45, includes b, f, d, v, th)

Morphemes are the smallest units of sound that convey meaning (go, do, un-, -ing, -ed)

98
Q

Phoneme

A

Phonemes are the smallest units of sound that are understood in a language

(English language has 45, includes b, f, d, v, th)

99
Q

Morpheme

A

Morphemes are the smallest units of sound that convey meaning

(go, do, un-, -ing, -ed)

100
Q

Three types of crying in babies

A

Pain

Hunger

Anger

101
Q

Responses to infant cries

A

Pain cry is most likely to get adults (in general) reacting strongest physiologically, and will more likely cause anxiety reactions in the mother

102
Q

Responsiveness to baby cries

A

The sooner you respond to cries, the shorter in duration and frequency crying will be in later months of life

103
Q

Cooing

A

Vowel sounds made by babies when contented and happy

6-8weeks

104
Q

Babbling

A

Consonant and vowel sounds
(4months)

Early babbling contains sounds from all languages
Between 9-14months, babbling narrows to sounds of their native lingo

105
Q

Babbling in deaf children

A

Only deaf children with residual hearing resemble hearing children in terms of early vocalizations

About the same age that hearing children begin to babble (4mo), deaf children will have repetitive hand gestures and “hand babble”

106
Q

Echolalia and expressive jargon

A

9 months of age

Echolalia - imitating adult speech sounds and words without understanding their meaning

Followed by expressive jargon, where children vocalize and sound like they’re forming sentences, but the sounds have no meaning

107
Q

Age of first words

A

Between 10-15 months

108
Q

What types of words are often babies first words

A

Nominals - objects, people, or events

Mama and dada are often first words

109
Q

Babies and receptive v productive vocabulary

A

Receptive vocabulary exceeds productive vocabulary
- by 13 mo, infants understand 50 words

By 18 mo, they can speak about 50 words

110
Q

Holophrases

A

Between 1-2 years

Single words used to express whole sentences
Using gestures and intonation

111
Q

Telegraphic speech

A

18-24months

Stringing two or more words together into a sentence

Initially only contain nouns, verbs, and adjectives

112
Q

When goes vocabulary growth occur most rapidly with children

A

Between 30-39 months

113
Q

During what period does a child’s sentences improve most in grammar and complexity

A

2.5-5 years

114
Q

By what age do children begin understanding humor and metaphor

A

6-7 years

115
Q

Underextension of language

A

When a child uses a word too narrowly

Dog refers only to the family dog

116
Q

Overextension

A

When a child uses a word too broadly

Dog means all animals with four legs

117
Q

Gender differences in language

A

Boys - use language to give orders, establish dominance, interrupt, talk longer

Girls - use language to ask questions, communicate support and attentiveness

118
Q

Second language acquisition and cognitive abilities

A

Bilingual children may initially have smaller vocabularies in each of their languages, however they may produce better results on cognitive tasks than monolingual children

119
Q

When to teach someone a second language

A

Easiest with best long-term outcomes in children

120
Q

Code switching

A

When a bilingual person switches between their native and second language

May be to better express themself or gain rapport

121
Q

Research on bilingual education

A

Language minority Children in high-quality English programs do as well as, or better than English only programs in terms of English skills and knowledge of subject matter

122
Q

Temperament

A

A persons basic disposition…

Influences how we respond to situations

123
Q

Behavioral inhibition research

A

Has a genetic contribution, remains stable over time

Can contribute to isolation and social anxiety as an adult

Can be modified by warm and supportive caregiving

124
Q

Three types of temperament identified by Thomas and Chess

A

Easy children - even tempered, sleep and eat well, adapt easily to change, positive mood usually

Difficult children - withdraw from new, unpredictable habits, typically negative mood

Slow-to-warm children - inactive, negative mood, take time to warm up to new stimuli

125
Q

Goodness-of-fit Model

A

Thomas and Chess

The degree of match between parents and the child’s temperament contributes strongly to the child’s outcomes

126
Q

Freud’s stages of psychosexual development

A 
Oral (b-1 year)
Anal (1-3 years)
Phallic (3-6 years)
Latency (6-12 years)
Genital (12+ years)
127
Q

Oral stage of psychosexual development

A

Birth to one year of age

Primary source of conflict: weaning

Fixation: dependence, passivity, gullibility, oral-focused habits

128
Q

Anal stage of psychosexual development

A

Age 1-3 years old

Primary source of conflict: toilet training

Fixation: obsessive compulsive, stingy, selfish…messy, cruel, destructive)

129
Q

Phallic stage of psychosexual development

A

3-6 years of age

Primary source of conflict: Oedipal conflict (love opposite gendered parent and hate same sexed parent)

Fixation: sexual exploitation of others
Successful resolution: identify with same sex parent and development of the superego

130
Q

Latency stage of psychosexual development

A

Ages 6-12 years

No primary sexual fixation at this stage

Emphasis on developing social skills (rather than achieving sexual gratification)

131
Q

Genital stage of psychosexual development

A

Age 12+

Libido is again centered in the genitals

Successful outcome: fusion of sexual interests with desire to form meaningful romantic relationships

132
Q

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

How do they differ from Freud

A

Social > Sexual

Ego is the driving force (rather than the id)

Personality development continues through the lifespan

133
Q

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

A 
Trust v Mistrust (infancy)
Autonomy v Shame (toddlerhood)
Initiative v Guilt (early childhood)
Industry v Inferiority (school age)
Identity v Role Confusion (adolescence)
Intimacy v Isolation (young adult)
Generativity v Stagnation (middle adult)
Integrity v Despair (old adult)
134
Q

Trust v Mistrust

A

Infancy

Positive relationships with primary caregiver results in trust and optimism

135
Q

Autonomy v Doubt

A

Toddlerhood

A sense of self (autonomy) develops out of positive interactions with one’s parents or caregivers

136
Q

Initiative v Guilt

A

Early childhood

Favorable relationships result in an ability to set goals without infringing on the rights of others

137
Q

Industry v Interiority

A

School age

People in neighborhood or school are most important influences

School aged children must master social and academic skills to stave off feelings of inferiority

138
Q

Identity v Role Confusion

A

Adolescence

Peers are the most important influences

Positive outcome produces a sense of personal identity and a direction for the future

139
Q

Intimacy v Isolation

A

Young adulthood

Establish intimate bonds of love and friendship

Failure to establish these bonds results in self-absorption and isolation

140
Q

Generativity v Stagnation

A

Middle adulthood

Most important people in this stage are coworkers and other people in our lives in general

Generative people display commitment to the well-being of future generations

141
Q

Integrity v Despair

A

Older adulthood

Social influence broadens to “all humankind”

Development of wisdom, less concern about impending death

142
Q

Baumrind’s theory on parenting styles discusses varying levels of what two parenting dimensions

A

Responsivity (acceptance and warmth)

Demandingness (control)

143
Q

Baumrind’s four parenting styles

A

Authoritarian (high demandingness, low responsivity)

Authoritative (demandingness and responsivity are balanced)

Permissive (low demandingness and high responsivity)

Rejecting-neglecting (low on both, with hostility)

144
Q

Authoritarian parenting style

A

High demandingness and low responsivity

Parents: obedience, standards of conduct, use power assertive techniques to gain control

Kids: irritable, aggressive, mistrusting, dependent, low esteem, low academic achievement

145
Q

Authoritative parenting style

A

Balanced levels of demandingness and responsivity

Parents: set rules and standards, provide explanation, inductive techniques to gain compliance, encourage compliance

Kids: assertive, socially ept, achievement-oriented, high esteem, confident

146
Q

Permissive (indulgent) parenting style

A

High responsiveness and low demandingness

Parents: allow kids to set rules and limits

Kids: immature, impulsive, selfish, easily frustrated, low achievement, intolerant

147
Q

Rejecting-neglecting (uninvolved) parenting style

A

Low responsivity, low demandingness

Parents: hostile towards children

Kids: juvenile delinquency involvement, low esteem, aggression, disinhibited mood, impulsive, poor self control

148
Q

Cultural background and ethnic influences on parenting style

A

Asian kids - high achievement despite authoritarian parenting style

Mexican - less achievement in school despite authoritative due to low peer support

African - May deliberately underachieve academically due to not wanting to appear white in front of peers

149
Q

Birth order and temperament

A

First born - rapid language acquisition, higher IQ, conscientious

Later born - more rebellious, better peer relationships, more social confidence

150
Q

Research on maternal depression and child temperament

A

Moms may be less responsive and positive around kids, leading to poorer outcomes for the children

Children may exhibit signs of stress by 3mo

May exhibit aggression with peers and poorer cognitive performance

151
Q

Research on parental depression

A

Correlated with father-child conflict

Internalizing and externalizing symptoms in children

Behavioral problems in boys around age 3
(Even when mom had no sx of depression)

152
Q

Three stages of self-awareness development

Per Stipek

A

Physical self-recognition - 18mo - kids recognize self in pictures and mirrors

Self-description - 19-30mo - children use neutral and evaluative terms to describe themselves

Emotional responses to wrongdoing - reactions to caregivers disapproval and begin to develop a sense of conscience

153
Q

What age is gender identity generally established by

A

Age three

154
Q

Cognitive Development Theory

For gender identity

A

Age 2-3 kids have gender identity

Soon after, kids develops gender stability
(Boys grow to be men, girls grow to be women)

Age 6-7 kids develop gender constancy, and realize that gender doesn’t change despite outward appearances

155
Q

Bem’s Gender Schema Theory

A

Acquisition of gender identity is attributed to social learning and cognitive development

Children develop schemas of masculinity and femininity as a result of their sociocultural experiences (the schemas determine view of self and others)

156
Q

Research on androgyny

A

Androgyny - mix of masculine and feminine characteristics

Correlated with higher levels of self esteem, satisfaction with sexual identity

157
Q

Gender roles in adulthood

A

Women fall into traditional roles with first child as they assume the role of primary caregiver

Men may become more sensitive, and women become more competitive, around middle age

158
Q

Four stages in Erikson’s model for adolescent identity

A

All about the identity crisis

  1. Identity diffusion - not yet committed to an identity
  2. Identity foreclosure - no crisis yet, form identity based on same sex caregiver
  3. Identity moratorium - crisis, explores alternatives, rebellion
  4. Identity achievement - resolved identity crisis

(Not hugely supported by research)

159
Q

Gilligan’s Relational Crisis

A

11-12yo in girls

Response to increasing culture pressures to fit into the stereotype of the perfect, good woman

May become quiet when realize they may be devalued

160
Q

Children’s understanding of death

A

2-5yo - death is reversible and temporary, separation or abandonment

5-9yo - death is irreversible but there is personification (return as ghost)

Age 10 - death is universal (will happen to everyone), and…
Nonfunctionality - life functions cease at death and is not reversible

161
Q

Stages of grief by Kübler-Ross

A 
Denial and isolation
Anger
Bargaining
Depression 
Acceptance

(DABDA)

162
Q

Harlow’s Theory of Attachment

A

Emphasizes the importance of contact comfort (the pleasant, tactile sensation that is provided by a soft, cuddly parent)

163
Q

Bowlby’s Internal Working Model of attachment

A

Attachment is biological, and children learn to cry and act to gain attention and attachment for survival purposes

Transition through the stages of attachment result in a IWM, which is a mental representation of self and others that influences a child’s future relationships

164
Q

Three global signs of attachment

A

Social referencing (looking to parent for reaction in ambiguous situations) - 6mo

Separation anxiety (distress when caregiver leaves) - begins 6-8mo and peaks at 14-18mo

Stranger anxiety (becomes anx of strangers, esp if parent is gone or responding negatively) - 8-10mo and continues to 2yo

165
Q

Four patterns of attachment

Ainsworth

A

Secure attachment

Insecure/Ambivalent Attachment

Insecure/Avoidant Attachment

Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment

166
Q

Secure Attachment

A

(Ainsworth)

Babies: explore and play when parent present, distress when mom leaves, seeks attention when mom returns

Moms: emotionally sensitive and responsive

167
Q

Insecure/Ambivalent Attachment

A

(Ainsworth)

Babies: cling and resist to mom, super upset when mom leaves, ambivalent when mom returns

Moms: moody and inconsistent

168
Q

Insecure/Avoidant Attachment

A

(Ainsworth)

Babies: doesn’t may mom much mind, doesn’t care about the stranger, avoids mom upon return

Moms: unresponsive or too smothering and too much stimulation

169
Q

Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment

A

(Ainsworth)

Babies: fear of caregiver, dazed and confused, contradictory behaviors

Moms: 80% of infants with this attachment style have been mistreated by their caregivers

170
Q

Disorganized/disoriented attached children are at an increased risk for…

A

Hostile and aggressive behavior

Low self-esteem

Low academic achievement

171
Q

Insecurely attached infants are less likely to develop adjustment problems if…

A

If their parents caregiving skills improve

And/Or

If they develop strong bonds to individuals outside the immediate family

172
Q

Primary contributor to maternal attachment

A

Maternal sensitivity to infant

173
Q

Primary contributor to paternal attachment

A

Involvement in caregiving activities (esp vigorous physical play)

174
Q

Research on prolonged separation from caregivers…

A

Children separated prior to three months of age show little or no negative consequences

Children who are nine months or older at time of separation exhibit moderate to extreme reactions (sleep and eat issues, withdrawal, anx, or excessive clinging or rejection of new mother)

175
Q

Caregiver attachment and adoption

A

Children from institutions are able to develop a close bond with their adoptive parents as long as they are adopted by age six

176
Q

Adult Attachment Interview

A

Emphasizes three attachment types of parents, based on their own attachment as a child

  • Autonomous (secure attached kids)
  • Dismissing (avoidant attached kids)
  • Preoccupied (resistant/ambivalent attached kids)
177
Q

Adults classified as Autonomous on the AAI

A

Give consistent descriptions of their relationships with their parents

Have securely attached kids

178
Q

Adults classified as Dismissing on the AAI

A

Provide positive descriptions of parental relationships on the AAI, but have conflicting memories or unsupported data

Have kids who are avoidant

179
Q

Adults classified as Preoccupied on the AAI

A

Become angry or confused when describing childhood relationships with their parents, or seem passively preoccupied with a parent

Children have resistant/ambivalent attachment patterns

180
Q

Sequence of emerging emotions in infants

A

Primary emotions first, soon after birth - interest, sadness, disgust, distress…

Anger, joy, surprise, fear (6-8mo)

2yo - self-conscious emotions

18-24mo - jealousy, embarrassment, empathy

30-35mo - shame, guilt, and pride

181
Q

Emotional contagion

A

Infants ability to detect (and mimic) emotions in others

Ex. When a baby cries in response to the crying of another infant

182
Q

Patterson et al’s two main characteristics of families of highly aggressive boys

A

Coercive interactions (reliance on coercive, aggressive behaviors by both children and parents to gain compliance)

Poor parental monitoring

183
Q

Patterson et al’s Coercive Family Interaction Model proposes…

A
  1. Children initially learn aggressive behaviors from their parents (who rarely reinforce prosocial behavior, use harsh disciple, and reward aggressive behaviors)
  2. Over time, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate
184
Q

Instrumental aggression

A

Aka. Proactive aggression

Performed in order to obtain a desired reward or advantage

185
Q

Hostile aggression

A

Aka. Reactive aggression

Is an angry and defensive response to provocation or interrupted goal
Is meant to hurt another person

186
Q

Social-cognitive factors that are seen in aggressive children

A
  1. Self-efficacy (believes it’s easy to be aggressive and hard to control self)
  2. Beliefs about outcomes (expects aggression will yield positive outcomes, and minimizes consequences)
  3. Regret/remorse (show little to no regret or remorse)
187
Q

Piaget’s Theory on childhood morality

A

Children up to six years of age are premoral and exhibit no concern for rules

7-10yo - heteronomous morality - rules are set by authority figures and are irreversible (consider consequences of their behavior)

11+yo - autonomous morality - rules are arbitrary, and can be reversible…care more about the intention of the actor than the acts consequences

188
Q

Children and lying

A

7-8yo children will intentionally communicate false statements

10-11yo children realize they can be deceived by others

(Children can lie as early as age 4 to avoid punishment)

189
Q

Heteronomous morality

A

Piaget’s view of morality in children

Children believe rules are irreversible, consequences drive their behavior

190
Q

Autonomous Morality

A

Piaget’s view of morality in children

Rules are arbitrary and reversible, they care more about the intention of the actor than the consequence of the action

191
Q

Kohlberg’s stages of morality development

A

Preconventional
- punishment and obedience orientation (avoid punishment)
- instrumental hedonism (satisfying needs > avoid punishment)
Conventional (9-10yrs)
- good boy/girl orientation (right action is one approved by others)
- law and order orientation (actions based on laws by legitimate persons)
Postconventional (late adolescence, adulthood)
- contract, rights, laws (right is determined by democratic laws)
- individual principles of conscience (right and wrong determined o;the basis of broad, self-chosen universal ethical principles)

192
Q

Preconventional stage or morality

A

Punishment and obedience orientation
(Avoid punishment)

Instrumental hedonism 
(Towards needs and desires)
193
Q

Conventional morality

A

9-10yo

Good boy/girl orientation
(Right actions are whatever is approved by others)

Law and order orientation
(Right and wrong are based on rules by legitimate authorities)

194
Q

Postconventional morality

A

11+yo

Morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted laws
(Right and wrong determined by democratically determined laws that can be altered)

Morality of individual principles of conscience
(Right and wrong are determined by broad, self-chosen ethical principles)

195
Q

Two interaction patterns are predictive of divorce…

A

Emotionally volatile attack-defend pattern
(Escalating negativity…anger is a combination of criticism, defensiveness, contempt, and stonewalling)

Emotionally inexpressive pattern
(Suppression of positive and negative affect…no conflict, but also no self-disclosure)

196
Q

Effects of divorce on parenting

A

Custodial parents - decrease in income, lonely, uncommunicative, impatient, less warm, monitor kids less closely (dads may recover faster)

Noncustodial dads - overindulgent, and visits usually drop off after a few months

Children have less adjustment issues when moms exhibit high degree of acceptance and consistency in discipline

197
Q

Effects of child’s age on divorce adjustment

A

Preschoolers exhibit more distress because they have less sophisticated understanding

Long-term consequences may be worse for older kids who will question their own future marriages

Sleeper effect - preschool or elementary girls exhibit adjustment problems in adolescence and young adulthood

198
Q

Sleeper effect

A

Girls who were in preschool or elementary at the time of divorce don’t show negative consequences until adolescence or young adulthood…

Adoles - noncompliant behavior, decreased esteem, sexual promiscuity
Young adult - intense anxiety about betrayal and abandonment in romantic relationships (increased risk for divorce themselves)

199
Q

Research on custody arrangements

A

Adjustment outcomes are better for children when they have frequent and reliable contacts with the noncustodial parent

200
Q

Research on parental conflict and divorce

A

Divorce is less important than overall parental conflict

Relationships high in conflict may be damaging, even if parents stay together

If separation or divorce helps lower the conflict, that would be a better outcome for a child

201
Q

Research on child’s age and remarriage

A

Stress and conflict between parents and their children were greatest when kids were nine years old or older at time of remarriage (early adolescence is worst)
- May exacerbate normal adolescent adjustment problems

202
Q

Research on stepparents after divorce

A

Stepparents tend to be less engaged and distant compared to their biological counterparts

Stepparents have best relationships when they parent authoritatively, are warm, supportive, and involved

203
Q

Impact of maternal employment on daughters

A

Better egalitarian relationships, positive views of femininity, higher self esteem, independence, higher academic achievement, higher career goals

204
Q

Impact of maternal employment on boys

A

Lower school achievement, more behavioral problems, increased conflict with mom

Low parental supervision makes it worse

205
Q

Research on attachment and daycare

A

High-quality daycare is not detrimental and may be beneficial, but effects may diminish by end of first grade

Children are less likely to experience insecure attachment if they formed a strong parent-child bond before beginning daycare, receive sensitive caregiving at home, and attend high-quality daycare

206
Q

Research on gay and lesbian parents

A

Nature of the relationship is more important than the parents sexuality

Parenting skills do gay and lesbian parents are equal, if not surpassing, that of heterosexual parents

207
Q

Number of children who are maltreated

A

9 in 1000

Neglect > physical abuse > sexual abuse > psychological abuse

208
Q

Perpetrators of child maltreatment

A

80% are by parents

88% of those parents are biological

209
Q

Effects of child sexual abuse appear to be less severe when…

A

The perpetrator is a stranger, as opposed to a family member or acquaintance

210
Q

Child characteristics associated with abuse

A

Premature, low birth weight

Difficult temperament

Less than 3yrs for physical abuse, preteens/teens for sexual abuse

Gender (female)

211
Q

Parent characteristics for child maltreatment

A

History of maltreatment themselves as a child
Use of harsh discipline

Alcohol and drug use, psychopathology, poor impulse control

Unreasonable expectations

Younger age, poor educational attainment

212
Q

Family characteristics for child maltreatment

A

Poverty

Unemployment

Marital instability, domestic violence

Crowded living conditions

Lack of access to medical care and social services

213
Q

Research on sibling relationships

A

Sibling rivalry is most fierce when kids are 1.5-3 years apart in age

Middle childhood is marked by closeness/conflict, and cooperation/competitiveness

Good relationships tend to get better with age (poor tend to get poorer with age)

214
Q

Three types of nonsocial play

Parten

A

Unoccupied play - random movements without a goal

Onlooker play - child watches other kids play, may comment, but does not engage

Solitary play - child plays alone and independently of others

215
Q

Three types of social play

Parten

A

Parallel play - children play alongside, may share toys, but otherwise don’t interact with each other

Associative play - interacting with other kids, share toys, no organized goal

Cooperative play - organized interactions with the purpose of achieving a common goal

216
Q

Buffering hypothesis

A

Subjective perception of social support is more important than the actual support

(Alleviates feelings of loneliness, reduces effects of stress and risk for heart disease)

217
Q

Types of neglected/rejected children…

A
  1. Rejected-aggressive - hostile, hyperactive, can’t reg negative emotions or perspective take
  2. Rejected-withdrawn - high social anx, victims of bullying, submissive, negative views of how others will treat them
  3. Neglected children - prefer to be alone, rarely disruptive, fewer than avg interactions with peers

Outcomes for children are worse then they are actively rejected by peers

218
Q

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

A

How quality of relationships change with lifespan

  1. If time is seen as unlimited - seek knowledge-based goals, and peers who can give new and novel situations and experiences
  2. If time is seen as limited - seek emotional-based relationships, fewer friends, more selectivity over partners
219
Q

When is peer conformity at its strongest

A

Ages 14-15

Adolescents at this point are most responsive to peer influence, whether it be positive, negative, or neutral

220
Q

In what ways do peers have more influence over parents

A

Everyday issues:

  • music
  • clothing
  • social activities
221
Q

In what ways to parents have more influence over peers

A

Basic beliefs and values

Education and career goals

222
Q

Empty nest syndrome

A

Long thought parents experienced decreased marital satisfaction when children move out

Marital quality has instead been observed to increase
(Women attribute to better quality of interactions instead of more time)

223
Q

Self-fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal effect) with teachers

A

Teachers will unconsciously address children differently based on whether or not they expect the child to be intelligent/hardworking or not

Has lead to increases in IQ for kids initially appraised to be intelligent (because teachers foster it more subconsciously)

224
Q

Teacher feedback for girls

A

Praised for: dependent behaviors, cooperation, effort

Criticized for: lack of ability to inadequate intellectual performance

225
Q

Impacts of teacher feedback on boys

A

Praised for: intellectual accomplishments and task-related behaviors

Criticized for: lack of decorum, failure to do work neatly, inattention

226
Q

Compensatory preschool programs

A

For students who are economically disadvantaged (Head Start)

Better attitudes towards school, less likely to be retained a grade, more likely to attend college

227
Q

General approach of Montessori schools

A

Child-centered - materials are set to fit each child’s abilities
(Advance at their own pace with support from teachers)

Based on assumption that learning stems from sense perception and is designed to enhance sense discrimination (listening, touching, smelling, tasting…)

228
Q

Impact of television on child development

A

Violent TV = aggression and tolerance for aggression

TV in general = reinforces gender role stereotypes, reduced physical activity, excessive weight gain, read less, poor school outcomes, less creative, less time interacting with families

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