Industrial/Organizational Psychology Flashcards
Job analysis
Systematic method for collecting the information needed to describe job requirements
Serves as the basis for developing criterion measures, provides info for job redesign, helps to identify causes of accidents
Broad methods of job analysis
Observing employees performing the job
Interviewing employees and/or supervisors
Reviewing company records
Having employees keep a job diary
Two specific types of methods used for job analysis
Job-oriented methods (tasks required for the job)
Worker-oriented methods (attributes of the employee that would lead to success in that job)
Job-oriented methods of job analysis
Provide information about the characteristics of the tasks that are performed on the job
Worker-oriented methods of job analysis
Provide information about the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (“KSAOs”) that a worker needs to perform the job successfully
Ex. Position Analysis Questionnaire
Strength to worker-oriented methods of job analysis
Produce data that is more helpful for designing training programs and deriving criterion measures that provide useful employee feedback
Job analysis v job evaluation
Job analysis - conducted to clarify the requirements of the job
Job evaluation - conducted to determine the worth of the jobs to set salaries and wages
Job analysis
Conducted to clarify the requirements of the job
Job evaluation
Conducted to determine the worth of the job for setting wages and salaries
Identify commendable factors: years of education, years of experience, degree of autonomy or responsibility, consequences of errors
Comparable worth
Determined through job evaluations
Ensures that people performing comparable work are receiving comparable pay
Usually done through some kind of performance evaluation (points system), so that salary is determined by the inherent value of the job
Criterion measures
Used to assess job performance
Two types of criterion measures
Objective - quantitative (don’t usually provide enough info)
Subjective - judgement-based rating scales (susceptible to bias)
Objective criterion measures
Qualitative measures of production
- ex. Number of units produced, number of units sold, absenteeism, tardiness, etc.
Disadvantages to objective criterion measurement
May be biased towards situational factors (differences in equipment, territory, supplies, etc.)
Many important aspects of job effectiveness can not be measured quantitatively (eg. working with peers, job motivation, etc.)
Cannot use these measures with complex professional, material or administrative jobs
Subjective criterion measures
Broadly
Evaluate employees based on ratings that reflect the judgement of the rater (usually a supervisor)
Peer, subordinate, and self-ratings can also be used when appropriate
Four characteristics of criterion measures
Ultimate v actual criterion - ultimate criterion is the conceptual and theoretical criterion, actual is the way performance is actually measured
Relevance - actual criterion’s construct validity (the degree to which it measures the ultimate criterion)
Deficiency - the degree to which the actual criterion does not reflect all aspects of the ultimate criterion
Contamination - when an actual criterion assess factors other than what it was designed to measure
Ultimate v Actual criterion
Ultimate - the theoretical or conceptual criterion (the accurate and complete measure of performance)
Ex. Psychotherapist ultimate criterion = provides effective treatment
Actual - the way performance is actually measured
Ex. Psychotherapist actual criterion = patient satisfaction with treatment
Relevance as it pertains to criterion measurement
Criterion relevance refers to the actual criterion s construct validity (the degree to which it measures the ultimate criterion)
Deficiency as it relates to criterion measures
Criterion deficiency is the degree to which an actual criterion does NOT measure all aspects of the ultimate criterion
(Limits criterion relevance)
Contamination as it relates to criterion measurement
Criterion contamination occurs when an actual criterion measures factors other than those it was designed to assess
Ex. Knowledge of an employees predictor performance
(Limits relevance of criterion measurement)
Two types of subjective criterion measurement
Relative (comparative) - compare 2+ employees to each other
Absolute - provide info on performance without comparisons
Advantages and disadvantages to absolute and relative techniques of subjective criterion measurement
Relative techniques can help alleviate rater biases
- BUT force the rater to rank employees (even if they’re all doing equally well)
Absolute techniques run the risk of rater bias
- BUT do not force you to unnaturally rank employees
Absolute techniques of subjective criterion measurement
Provide information on an employees performance without reference or comparison to other employees
Relative techniques for subjective criterion measurement
Require a rater to compare the performance of two or more employees
Two relative techniques for subjective criterion measurement
Paired comparison - rater compares each employee with every other employee on dimensions of job performance
Forced distribution - grade employees on a normally distributed curve
Paired comparison technique
(Relative technique for subjective criterion measurement)
Rater compares an employee to every other employee on one or more dimensions of job performance
Disadvantage: becomes increasingly difficult as the number of employee increases
Forced distribution technique
(Relative technique for subjective criterion measures)
Involves assigning grades and placing employees grades on a normal curve
Disadvantage: may yield erroneous data if the data are not normally distributed
Critical incident technique
(An absolute technique for subjective criterion measurement)
Derive a checklist of critical incidents needed for good and bad performance
Rater completes the checklist for each employee
Advantage: provides data to give feedback to the employee
Disadvantage: development is difficult, assesses only extreme (critical) job behaviors rather than typical ones
Four types of absolute techniques for subjective criterion measurement
Critical incident technique
Forced choice rating scale
Graphic rating scale
Behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS)
Forced choice rating scale technique
(Absolute technique for subjective criterion measurement)
Consists of 2-4 selection alternatives, and the rater has to choose the one that best or least describes the employee
Advantage: can help reduce rater bias
Disadvantage: time-consuming to develop, disliked by raters
Graphic rating scale technique
(Absolute technique for subjective criterion measurement)
Requires the rater to indicate employee level of performance on several dimensions using a Likert scale
Disadvantage: highly susceptible to bias (accuracy improved with Likert items are anchored with examples)
Behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) technique
(Absolute technique for subjective criterion measurement)
Supervisors (1) identify dimensions of job performance, (2) identify behavioral anchors (critical incidents) for each dimension, (3) order the anchors from most to least desirable or vice versa, (4) choose the anchors that best describe the employee
Advantage: provides data for employee feedback
Disadvantage: time-consuming to develop, anchors are often made up of expectations (and not what the employee is actually doing)
Three kinds of rater bias
Leniency/Strictness - raters avoid the middle range of a rating scale
Central Tendency - raters only use the middle range of a rating scale
Halo Bias - evaluation of the employee on one dimension impacts ratings on others
Leniency/Strictness Bias
Occurs when a rater tends to avoid the middle range of a rating scale, rating all employees as high (leniency) or low (strictness) on all dimensions of performance
Central Tendency Bias
When a rater consistently uses only the middle range of a rating scale
Halo Bias
When a raters evaluation of an employee on one dimension, impacts ratings in others
OR
When a raters general impression of an employee influences their ratings
Can be positive or negative
How to eliminate rater biases in employee criterion measurement
Frame-of-reference training
Provides raters with common descriptions of what constitutes effective and ineffective performance on each dimension
Reliability
As it relates to predicting employee performance
The extent to which performance on a measure is unaffected by measurement error
Validity
As it relates to predicting employee performance
The degree to which the measure assesses what it is designed or supposed to
Three types of validity and which one is most important for employee performance prediction
Content
Construct
Criterion
Adverse impact
When a selection test (or other employment procedure) is discriminating against members of a legally protected group
80% rule
Used to determine if a procedure is having an adverse impact
Multiply employment rate of majority group by 80%, and that will give you the employment rate of the minority group (adverse impact will be below that figure)
Two main causes of adverse impact
Differential validity - measure of predicted performance is valid for one group but not another
Unfairness - when members of one group consistently underperforms on a measure (and the differences are not due to score differences on the criterion)
Differential validity
As a source of adverse impact
Occurs when a measure is valid for one group but is not valid for another group.
The characteristic that distinguishes between the two groups (eg. gender) is the moderator variable
Unfairness
As it relates to sources of adverse impact
Occurs when embers of o;e group consistently obtained lower scores on a predictor than members of another group
BUT, the difference between the groups is not related to the difference between groups on the criterion variable
Two ways to handle a discrimination lawsuit (Title 6)
The burden of proof is on the company to demonstrate there is no discrimination
- Argue the measure is a business necessity with no reasonable alternative
- Argue the discrimination is a bona fide occupational qualification (ex. Needing a woman as a attendant for a women’s restroom)
Incremental validity
Refers to the increase in decision-making accuracy an employer will achieve by using the predictor to make selection decisions
Incremental validity depends on what two factors
Base rate - number of employees performing satisfactorily without use of the proposed predictor
Selection ratio - ratio of job openings to number of applicants
Selection ratio
The ratio of job openings to job applicants
Low ratios are best (small number of openings and many applicants) because it means the organization can be more selective
Base rate
As it relates to incremental validity
The percent of employees who are performing satisfactorily without use of the proposed predictor
Moderate base rates ~.50 are associated with best incremental validity
Taylor-Russell Tables
Used to estimate the percent of new hires that will be successful given a combination of:
- validity coefficients
- selection rates
- base rates
Multiple regression (As it relates to employee selection)
When using a multiple regression for predicted job performance, you have predictor scores that are weighted and summed to yield an estimated criterion score
Multiple regressions are compensatory…so one high predictor score can offset a low predictor score
Multiple cutoff (As it relates to employee selection)
Noncompensatory
Applicants must reach minimum scores across the multiple predictors before they can be considered for selection
(May start with this, and then use multiple regression on the applicants that pass)
Three ways that predictors can be combined
As it pertains to employee selection
Multiple regression - combined and summarized scores on predictors
Multiple cutoff - applicants must pass cutoff scores on the predictors before being considered
Multiples hurdles - predictors are administered in a predetermined order, one at a time, and applicants must pass a hurdle before progressing to the next one
General Mental (Cognitive) Ability Tests (Predictors used in organizations)
Consistently produce the highest validity coefficients across jobs and job settings
Job Knowledge Tests
As they relate to predictors used in organizations
Measures of job knowledge are good (if not better) predictors of job performance (compared to GMAs)
These are only useful if the applicant has prior job training or experience
Personality Tests
As they pertain to predictors used in organizations
The Big Five trait of conscientiousness is most predictive of good outcomes
Research on personality scores and job performance is shaky
Biodata
As it relates to predictors used in organizations
Collection of employment history and other social history variables (health history, economic history, etc.)
One of the best predictors
Disadvantage: BIBs contain questions that are not face-valid, and some applicants may leave items blank feeling that the question is an invasion of privacy
Ways to improve validity of interviews (most common way predictors are measured)
Use a standardized interview
Train interviewers in observation and interpersonal skills
Combine the interview with other assessment matures (GMA, etc)
Use a single interviewer (better than a panel interview)
Realistic job previews
When a work sample is generated that includes a written description of the job
Helps to avoid turnover when the job does not reach expectations of the prospective employees
Two types of tests used at assessment centers
(When groups of applicants are evaluated by a panel)
In-basket test: take action on sample memos and reports
Leaderless group discussion: have 5-6 people work on a problem to solve or discuss a job-related issue
A needs assessment contains four elements:
Organizational analysis - what are the goals and is training needed to achieve them
Task analysis - what skills are needed by employees to succeed
Person analysis - to determine who needs the training (which workers)
Demographic analysis - which groups may need the training (eg. Age)
Two main principles of effective training
Overlearning - practice a task beyond mastery, leads to automaticity
Provision of identical elements - making training as identical to real world scenarios as possible
Two major methods of training employees
On-the-job (most widely used)
Off-the-job
Advantages to on-the-job training
Permit active participation
Allow for ongoing feedback
Are job-relevant
Examples of on-the-job training
Internships, apprenticeships, mentoring
Job rotation - working many roles within a job (for management)
Cross-training - teaching workers tasks that are performed in several similar jobs
Job rotation
Form of on-the-job training
Involves having trainees perform several jobs over time
Ordinarily used to train managers
Cross-training
Form of on-the-job training
Teaches workers tasks and activities that are performed in several, similar jobs
Advantages to off-the-job training techniques
Pro ide more opportunities for focusing on specific tasks
Flexibility to tolerate learning errors
Disadvantages to off-the-job training techniques
Low trainee motivation
Higher costs (due to time off for the training)
Types of off-the-job training
Lectures, conferences, computer assisted trainings
Vestibule modeling - simulation of a work scenario that is too dangerous or costly to do in real life
Behavioral modeling - watching a teacher perform the task to be learned
Vestibule modeling
Type of off-the-job training
Makes use of a physical replication or simulation of the work environment
Is useful when on-the-job training would be too costly or dangerous
Behavioral modeling
Bandura
Type of off-the-job training
Employees observe a skilled worker performing the target behavior, then they are asked to emulate
Four levels of evaluation criteria for job training programs
Reaction criteria - evaluates participants reactions to the training
Learning criterion - evaluates how much participants actually learned
Behavioral criteria - assesses participants change in performance when they return to the job
Results criteria - the impact of the training on the organizations goals
Utility analysis
Used to evaluate the effectiveness of training as it relates to a return on the organizations financial returns
Uses a mathematical formula
Formative v summation feedback
Formative - conducted while training programs are being developed and feedback is used to modify the program before its implemented
Summative - conducted after the training is implemented to assess the trainings outcomes (may include how much employees have learned and/or cost effectiveness)
Super’s Life Space Life Span theory
Career development
Job satisfaction, stability, and success depend on the extent to which a job matches an individual’s self-concept (inherited attitudes, physical makeup, social learning)
Super’s five stages of career development
Life SPAN
Growth (0-14) Exploration (14-25) Establishment (25-45) Maintenance (45-65) Disengagement (65+)
Career maturity
(Super’s Life Space Life Span theory)
A persons ability to cope with the developmental tasks of their career stage (decision making, planning ahead, knowledge, use of information and resources)
Life-Career Rainbow
(Supers Life SPACE Life Span theory)
Image that relates the persons career development as it impacts their social roles (student, apprentice, employee, supervisor, teacher…etc.)
Holland’s model of career development
Emphasizes the importance of matching someone’s personality to the characteristics of the job
RIASEC
Holland’s model of career development
The six types of personality/work environments
Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional
Differentiation
Holland’s model of career development
Proposes his model works best on predicting job stability and satisfaction when there is a high level of differentiation (difference) between one of his six types (RIASEC) and the other five
Roe’s theory on career development
Generally
Concerned with Maslow’s hierarchy and how well a job fits into your personality and basic needs
Tiedeman and Ohara’s Career Decision-Making Model
Career development
Vocational identity is tied to ego identity and development
Two stages of career decision making:
Anticipation - search for, try out, and get jobs
Implementation - enters the work situation, becomes a member of the workforce, achieves balance between work and social needs
Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory
Career development
Career decision making is based on reinforcement and learning (Bandura)
Influenced by four factors: genes (natural strengths), environmental conditions (job opportunities, location, community influence, learning experiences, and task approach skills (habits, performance expectations)
How does Krumboltz’s approach to career development differ from other, more classic models (such as Super, Tiedeman and O’Hara, Holland, and Roe)?
Does not focus on matching someone to a job that fits them, but rather promotes continual learning and self-development (which allows you to change and respond to your work environment)
Brousseau and Driver’s four career concepts
Fall along three dimensions: frequency of job change, direction of change, and type of change in job content
1 - linear - progressive upward trend in authority and responsibility
2 - expert - lifelong commitment and development to a career specialty
3 - spiral - periodic moves across specialties or disciplines
4 - transitory - frequenters job changes, often in unrelated fields
Theory of work adjustment
Dawis and Lofquist
Job tenure, satisfaction, and outcomes are related to:
1 - satisfaction - degree to which job represents your needs and values
2 - satisfactoriness - degree to which your skills fit the job
Effects of unemployment
Decreases in physical and emotional health
Lazarus and Folkman’s two approaches to coping with unemployment
Problem-focused coping - focus on the problem that is causing the stress (ex. Job searching, skill building, moving to a better location)
Symptom-focused coping - dealing with the emotional reactions to the stressor (looking for community or family support, financial assistance, venting)
Downsizing
When a company attempts to cut costs by reducing its workforce
Consequences of downsizing (for survivors)
Survivor syndrome
Feelings of depression, anxiety, guilt, loss of respect for company, decreased job satisfaction
Scientific management
Scientific method + job productivity
(Emphasizes that employees are monetarily motivated)
Involves: standardization of job tasks, scientifically selecting and training workers for their tasks, fostering cooperation between employees and supervisors, and ensuring everyone takes responsibility for their share of the work
Human relations movement
Discounted the notion that employees and monetarily motivated, or produced better under optimal physical conditions
Focused on the importance of social and psychological factors
Hawthorne effect
(Human relations movement)
The improvement of job performance resulting from psychological and social factors
Theory X vs Theory Y managers
Theory X - assumes employees dislike work, try to get out of it whenever possible, and must be controlled and directed
Theory Y - believe work should be as natural as play, and assume employees can self-direct and self-control
(Leads to better outcomes)
Needs-Hierarchy Theory
Employee motivation
Based on Maslow
Motivation is the result of the five basic instinctual needs: physiological, safety, relationships, esteem, and self-actualization
Managers tend to rate esteem and self-actualization most important
Non-managers tend to rate the lower needs as most important
McClelland’s Need Theory
Of employee motivation
Three needs act as motivators in work settings:
nACH - need to surpass standards of excellence and grow
nPOW - need to control and influence others
nAFF - need to establish warm and close relationships
Qualities of people with high nAFF
Work well in teams and with jobs that allow them to relate with others
Qualities of people with high nACH
Goal and task oriented
Choose tasks at moderate difficulty (since success often relies more on effort than uncontrollable factors)
Prefer frequent, constant feedback, view money as a source of recognition (but don’t overemphasize money)
Assume personal responsibility for their work, so don’t make good managers
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Of employee motivation
Incorporates both satisfaction and motivation (and dissatisfaction is independent, and not just a lack of satisfaction)
Lower level needs (hygiene factors) and higher level needs (motivator factors)
Two basic needs of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Lower level needs - do not impact satisfaction and motivation, but increase dissatisfaction if they’re not met (hygiene factors - pay, benefits, coworker relationships, work conditions)
Higher level needs - do not create dissatisfaction if not bet, but can improve satisfaction and motivation (motivator factors - responsibility, advancement, recognition, achievement)
Job enrichment v job enlargement
Job enrichment - providing employees with more higher-level jobs that allow for more autonomy, responsibility, freedom, and control
Job enlargement - providing employees with a wider array of tasks to do
(Reduces boredom, but doesn’t impact satisfaction and motivation like job enrichment does)
Goal-Setting Theory
of employee motivation
Employees are motivated to achieve goals that they consciously accept and commit to
Participation in goal setting is critical when the employee is not likely to accept the assigned goal
When people set their own goals, they tend to be more difficult than the goals given by their supervisor
Individual v group goals
Goal settings theory of employee motivation
Individual goals are preferred when the tasks require the employees to work independently
Group goals are preferred when the task depends on cooperation and interdependence
Group goals are more effective than individual goals
When is participation in goal setting important
Goal setting theory of employee motivation
Whenever employees are not likely to accept assigned goals
Otherwise, it’s not crucial
Equity theory of employee motivation
Theory is based on motivation and social comparison
Employees compare their output to that of their coworkers…if there is inequity they will chance their output or rationalize the inequity to maintain balance
Expectancy (VIE) theory of employee motivation
An employee will work hard if:
(High expectancy) They perceive high effort will lead to success
(High instrumentality) Success leads to rewards
(Positive valance) Rewards are desirable
Social cognitive theory of employee motivation
(Bandura) Emphasizes the self-regulation of behavior and proposes four processes:
Goal setting - establish personal goals
Self-observation - monitor your goal-related behavior
Self-evaluation - compare behavior to the goals
Self-reaction - can be positive or negative, keep going with behaviors towards goals or reevaluate goals
Job satisfaction
An employees cognitive, affective, and evaluative reactions to his or her job
Worker characteristics associated with job satisfaction
Disposition - genetic component to job satisfaction (twin studies)
Age - positive linear or u-shaped (high, low, high sat) relationship
Race - minority employees may have lower levels of job satisfaction
Occupational level - more satisfaction with white-collar
Impact of pay on job satisfaction
Research has been inconclusive
But - an employees perception of equity and fairness (how they’re treated) may correlate stronger than pay to job satisfaction
Correlation coefficient between job dissatisfaction and turnover
-0.40
Organizational commitment
Strength of an employees psychological attachment to an organization
Three types:
Affective (emotional connection), continuance (costs of leaving), normative (remaining because it’s right thing to do)
Affective organizational commitment
Refers to a workers identification with, emotional attachment to, and involvement in the organization
Most strongly correlated to absenteeism, turnover, job performance, etc.
Continuance organizational commitment
Refers to a workers perceptions regarding the social and monetary costs of leaving an organization
Normative organizational commitment
Refers to the workers sense of obligation to remain with the organization because they believe it’s the right thing to do
Ohio State University leadership dimensions
OSU study identified two basic and independent dimensions of leadership behavior
Consideration - amount of warmth, concern, rapport, and support displayed by the leader (person-oriented)
Initiating Structure - extent to which a leader directs and structures roles to achieve goals (task-oriented)
Gender differences in leadership
No differences between gender and expression of consideration or initiating structure
Women may take a more democratic (participative) decision-making approach
Personality traits of effective leaders
Honesty Drive Integrity Knowledge Flexibility Creativity
Big-Five trait of extroversion
Relationship between leadership and intelligence
Leaders are most successful when their intelligence is only somewhat greater than the intelligence of their subordinates
Large discrepancy can create problems with communication and trust
Contingency theory of leadership
Leadership effectiveness is an interaction between leadership style and situational favorableness
Leadership style - relation (high LPC) v task orientation (low LPC)
Situational favorableness - amount of influence and power a leader has
Cognitive resource theory of leadership
Leaders intelligence and experience on leadership performance is moderated by the stressful ness of the situation
Low-stress situations: intelligence is strongest predictor of performance
High-stress situations: experience is strongest predictor of performance
Path-goal theory of leadership
Effective leaders carve a path for subordinates that allows them to fulfill personal goals through achievement of group and organizational goals
Can be either directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented
Situational leadership
Four styles of leadership exist and are appropriate at varying times
Telling - high task, low relshp / employees low willingness and ability
Selling - high task and relshp / employees low ability and high willingness
Participating - low task, high relshp / employees high ability, low willing
Delegating - low task and relshp / employees high ability and willingness
Normative (decision-making) model
Five basic decision strategies
Autocratic (AI) - leader makes decisions alone
Autocratic (AII) - leader seeks input but makes final decision by themself
Consultative (CI) - talk to each individual employee, makes a decision
Consultative (CII) - take to employees as a group, makes a decision
Group (G) - brings issue to group, group makes the decision
Transformational leaders
Have the ability to recognize need for change, create a vision that guides that change, and accomplish change effectively (framing)
Empower employees through through appeals to morality and justice
Transactional leaders
Focus more on stability than change, emphasize behaviors related to normal work activities (status quo)
Rely on rewards and punishments to motivate employees
Conditions that contribute to group norms
Task demands: ambiguous, highly complex, or situations that involve solutionless problems increase group conformity
Group characteristics: one dissenter breaks conformity
Idiosyncrasy Credits
The ability for a group member to occasionally violate group norms without rejection, because he or she has gained status, power, or prestige within a group
Factors that influence group cohesiveness
Size: most cohesion in groups of 5-10 people
Homogeneity: more cohesion when the members are similar
Goals: more cohesion when members have to depend on one another to achieve common goals
Types of group tasks
Additive task - individual contributions are all added together
Compensatory task - individual contributions are averaged together
Disjunctive task - group members select the decision offered by one group member (ideally, that of the best member)
Conjunctive task - group performance is limited by the worst member
Additive group tasks
Individual contributions of group members are added together for form a group product
Group performance of additive tasks is superior to individual performance
Compensatory group tasks
A tack wherein the inputs of group members are averaged together to create a single product
Disjunctive group tasks
Group members must select the solution or decision offered by one of the group members
Ideally, that of the best member
Conjunctive group tasks
The groups overall performance is limited by that of the worst-performing member
Social loafing
Potential negative outcome to group work
When an individual exerts less effort as a group member than they would have exerted if working alone
Factors that increase the chances of social loafing
When members know their contributions will not be recognized
Large group size
Social facilitation v social inhibition
Social facilitation - when the mere presence of others increases task performance (most likely when task is simple and well-learned)
Social inhibition - when the presence of others decreases task performance (most likely when task is complex or new(unlearned))
Five states of group development
Tuckman and Jensen
Forming - members become acquainted and attempt to est rules
Storming - group members fight for, and resist, control and power
Norming - group members begin to work together, form rules, care for one another
Performing - form clear roles, accept strengths and weaknesses, work together to get the job done
Adjourning - task is complete, group disbands
Two types of communion networks
Centralized (Y, wagon wheel, chain)
- all communications pass through a central person or position
- more efficient for simple tasks, only central person reports satisfaction
Decentralized (circle, all-channel)
- information flows freely without going through a central person
- better for complex tasks, all members are satisfied
Two types of Individual Decision-Making models
Rational-economic - decision makers consider all possible alternatives before selecting one (assumes they have all the information they need and that the information is correct)
Bounded rationality - decision makers consider options as they arise, and select the first solution that meets a minimum standard of criteria (acknowledges limits on time, capabilities, resources, etc.)
Two potential liabilities to group decision making
Groupthink - when the group is so homogeneous that it no longer uses critical thinking
Group polarization - when the group makes riskier decisions than the individual members would on their own
How to reduce groupthink
Encouraging skepticism and dissent
Appointing someone to play devil’s advocate
Bringing in outside opinions
Brainstorming
Involves two components:
- Encouraging group members to verbalize all ideas that come to mind regardless of quality or feasibility of the idea
- Requiring all members to reserve judgement and criticism until the end
Three formal methods for conflict resolution
Bargaining (compromising)
Mediation (powerless person comes in to open channels of communication and reach an agreement between disputants)
Arbitration (an arbiter controls the process and outcome of the conflict resolution)
Three phases to mediation
Setting the stage (clarifying ground rules and collecting information)
Problem solving (posting issues and generating alternatives)
Achieving a workable agreement (pressuring parties to reach an agreement)
Four types of arbitration
Binding (both sides accept an agreement posited by arbiter)
Voluntary (parties only agree to arbitration process)
Conventional (arbiter is free to choose any settlement solution)
Final offer (arbiter selects one of the final offers out forth by disputants)
Force Field Analysis
For planned change
Organizations are constantly responding to forces that either promote (driving forces) or resist (restraining forces) change
Involves three stages: unfreezing (need for change is recognized and steps take to make people receptive to change), changing, refreezing (supporting the changes and reestablishing an equilibrium)
Four primary organizational development interventions
Quality circles (small group works together and reports back)
Self-mgmt work teams (group makes management-level decisions)
Process consultation (person comes in, observes, and teaches employees how to improve)
Total quality management (emphasizes teamwork, compresses vertical organizational structures)
Change agent
An individual who is responsible for guiding change efforts within an organization
Internal v external change agents
Internal - member of the organization that is familiar with the organizations structures and has a personal interest in the change effort (issue: may lack objectivity)
External- a consultant called in to subjectively assess a situation and bring in new perspective (issue: lack familiarity with the organization)
Three types of organizational justice
Procedural - fairness of the way in which a policy or procedure is implemented
Distributive - fairness of the outcomes of an organizational procedure or policy
Interactional - how people feel about quality and context of interpersonal interactions
Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of National (Organizational) Culture
Power distance
Uncertainty avoidance
Individualism
Masculinity
Long-term orientation
Power distance
Hofstede’s five dimensions of national culture
The extent to which people accept an unequal distribution of power
Uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of National Culture)
The willingness or ability of people to tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty
Individualism
Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of National Culture
The extent to which individuals or closely-knit relationships (eg. Family) are the basis of the social system
Masculinity
Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of National Culture
Extent to which value is placed in assertiveness, independence, and competitiveness
Long-Term Orientation
Hofstede’s Five Dimensions of National Culture
The extent to which people focus on the future, versus the past or present
Schein’s three levels of organizational culture
- Made up of observable artifacts (dress code, annual reports, rituals)
- Consists of espoused values and beliefs (norms, goals, ideologies)
- Composed of basic underlying assumptions (unconscious, taken-for-granted perceptions, beliefs, thoughts, and emotions)
Person-organization fit
P-O
Extent to which a persons values match those of the organizations culture
Impact of good P-O fit
Small impact on productivity
Larger impact on motivation, satisfaction, and organizational commitment
Yerkes-Dodson Law
The relationship between level of arousal and performance is described with an inverted U-shape, with moderate arousal leading to best performances
Easy tasks - more arousal is optimal
Hard tasks - less arousal is optimal
One of the largest causes of reduced arousal in job performance
Fatigue
Methods for reducing fatigue
Selecting workers who are least likely to be fatigued by job requirements
Training workers in efficient job procedures
Providing rest breaks
How to make rest breaks effective for employees
Smaller, more frequent > longer, less frequent
Make sure their schedules have been empirically determined
Be provided in fourth and eighth hours of work (when fatigue is highest)
Demand-Control (Job Strain) Model
Identifies job demand and job control as the primary contributors to job stress
Job demand: requirements of the job (work hours, etc.)
Job control: amount of autonomy and discretion workers have
Most stressful jobs are high in job demand and low in job control
Job burnout
Caused by accumulated stress with overwork
Primary symptoms of job burnout
Feelings of low personal accomplishment
Depersonalization (tendency to treat employees as objects)
Emotional exhaustion
An early sign of job burnout
Increase in work effort, with no related increase in job productivity
Worker characteristics that increase risk of job burnout
Inflexible
Feel their efforts are useless, ineffective, or under appreciated
Feel their opportunities for advancement are limited
Characteristics of jobs that increase risk of burnout
If the job involves frequent contact with people in need of help
When the supervisor is perceived as being low in consideration
When the job presents with overwhelming demands and time pressures
Work-family conflict
When the role demands of career and family are incompatible because work interferes with family
Person-machine fit
Human factors perspective
Performance is a result of an interaction between people and machines (or other non-human element in the workplace), and a failure in performance is due to a person-machine mismatch
Americans with Disabilities Act
1991
Employers with more than fifteen employees cannot discriminate based on physical or mental disability
Employers must make “reasonable accommodations” so long as the accommodations do not cause “undue hardship” to the employer
Prohibits medical examinations prior to the employment offer, and only allowed them post-offer if there is a real need for one for the job
Examples of “reasonable accommodations” in accordance with ADA
Making existing facilities accessible
Acquiring or modifying equipment
Modifying training materials
Altering the work schedule
Compressed workweek
When you work for fewer days, but more hours each day
Ex. 4-10s
Have positive effects on supervisor ratings and performance, but no impact on productivity
Flextime
When an employee chooses their start and end times around a core time when all employees will be present
Positive connections with productivity, satisfaction, absenteeism
Less stress, less work-family conflict
Three primary work shifts
Regular: 7am-3pm
Swing: 3pm-11pm
Graveyard: 11pm-7am
How to reduce negative impacts on shift work
Fixed shifts preferred over rotating shifts
(Forwards rotating shifts preferred over backwards rotating shifts)
Freedom of choice over shifts can be protective against negative outcomes
Disadvantages to working swing and graveyard shifts
Swing shifts have biggest negative impact on family
Graveyard shifts are most connected with negative social, health, and work-related problems (accidents, low quality)
- due at least in part to sleep deprivation
