Learning, CBT, and Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Founder of classical conditioning

A

Ivan Pavlov

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2
Q

Process of classical conditioning

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A naturally occurring stimulus (US) produces a natural response (UR)

Pair a neutral stimulus with the US, and the neutral stimulus will then produce a response (CR)

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3
Q

Effects of temporal relationships in conditioning

A

The CS must precede and overlap with the US (ideally by 0.5 seconds) for the best effect - called delay conditioning

Second best is trace conditioning, when you present and terminate the CS before showing the US.

Even less effective is simultaneous conditioning, when you show the neutral stimulus and the US at the same time

Worst is backward conditioning - US, then CS - produces no conditioning

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4
Q

Impact of the number of conditioning trials in classical conditioning

A

The greater the number of conditioning trials, the stronger the CR

However, the strength of the CR will likely always be a bit weaker than the UR

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5
Q

Impacts of pre-exposure on classical conditioning

A

Repeated exposure to the US or CS before they are paired slows down the acquisition of the CR

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6
Q

Classical extinction

A

The gradual disappearance of the CR with the CS

To avoid: add in occasional refresher trials with the CS and US pairing

Following extinction, fewer trials are needed to get the CS-CR response back

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7
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

In the days following an extinction, the CS can still elicit a weak CR

Demonstrates that learning is never lost (per Pavlov), it is just inhibited
(The CR is suppressed, rather than eliminated)

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8
Q

Stimulus generalization

A

When stimuli similar to the CS also produce a CR

In some instances, this can also occur across senses

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9
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

The ability to discriminate between the CS and stimuli similar to the CS

Stimulus discrimination is established through discrimination training, where you selectively reinforce the CS, and don’t reinforce the similar stimuli

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10
Q

Experimental neurosis

A

Occurs during discrimination training when the animal/subject can no longer distinguish between the CS and the similar objects (when the two stimuli are too similar)

Dogs in Pavlov’s studies would exhibit agitation, aggressiveness, restlessness

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11
Q

Higher-order conditioning

A

Pair a CS with a neutral stimulus, which then becomes the higher-order conditioned stimulus

Explains how CRs are acquired in the absence of a US

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12
Q

Blocking

A

When you present a CS, US, and neutral stimulus at the same time

The presence of the CS will block the pairing of the US and neutral stimulus

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13
Q

Overshadowing

A

If you pair two neutral stimuli with a US to elicit a CR…

If you break up the two neutral stimuli, only one will come to elicit the CR and the other will not

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14
Q

Little Albert

A

John Watson

Classical conditioning with a baby
White rats, stimulus generalization

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15
Q

Interventions based on counterconditioning are based on the underlying technique of reciprocal inhibition…

What is reciprocal inhibition?

A

Pairing a stimulus that invokes anxiety (CS) with a stimulus that invokes relation (CS)

Pair the anxiety-provoking stimuli with something naturally relaxing (US)

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16
Q

Two types of interventions based on counterconditioning

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Systematic desensitization

Behavioral sex therapy

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17
Q

Four stages to systematic desensitization

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Relaxation training (PMR, imagery)

Construction of the hierarchy (10-15 events, SUDS 1-100)

Desensitization in imagination (start from bottom of hierarchy; relax, then imagine, then bring back to relaxation)

In vivo desensitization (do after 75-85% imagination, do with things already desensitized via imagination)

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18
Q

Evaluation research on systematic desensitization

A

Extinction is responsible for systematic desensitization (as opposed to the combination of anxiety and counter-relaxation states)

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19
Q

Behavioral Sex Therapy is best indicated for…

A

Disorders related to (or exacerbated by) performance anxiety

Premature ejaculation (squeeze technique is prominent)

Vaginismus (relaxation with dilators is prominent)

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20
Q

How behavioral sex therapy works

A

Through use of senate focus

Pairing a situation that avoids anxiety with pleasurable sensations and relaxation

Ex. Abstaining from sex and focusing only on non-genital touching or massage for pleasure, then progressing to non-demand genital touching

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21
Q

Two interventions based on aversive counterconditioning

A

In vivo aversion therapy

Covert sensitization

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22
Q

In vivo aversion therapy

A

Form of aversive counterconditioning

Pair a maladaptive behavior (CS) with a US that naturally elicits a noxious response (shock, odor, emetic drug)

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23
Q

Types of conditions that may benefit from aversive counterconditioning

A

Substance use disorders

Paraphilias

Self-injurious behavior

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24
Q

Research on aversive counterconditioning

A

Most effective with cigarette smoking, moderately effective sometimes in the short term for everything else

High relapse rates, limited generalizability

Most effective when the adverse method is similar to the maladaptive method (eg. alcoholism with taking a drug), AND when supplemented with other treatment modalities

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Covert sensitization process
Type of aversive counterconditioning Imagining the noxious event (in as much detail as possible) while willfully engaging in the maladaptive behavior (Ex. Smoking and imagining feeling nauseous, vomiting, and being embarrassed) May also incorporate a “relief scene” where you imagine not doing the maladaptive behavior and experiencing relaxation
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Three therapies based on classical extinction techniques
In vivo exposure and response prevention Implosive therapy EMDR
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Two variations to in vivo exposure with response prevention
Flooding - highest ranking anxiety stimulus for a prolonged period of time Graded - start with the lowest stimulus and work up to the highest
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In vivo expose and response prevention
Exposed to real-life anxiety-inducing events for prolonged periods, and prohibiting the person from engaging in avoidance behaviors or rituals
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Evaluation of in vivo and response prevention therapy
Exposure AND response prevention are both needed Prolonged exposure > several brief exposures High anxiety situations may not always be necessary Group and self-directed treatments can be as equally efficacious
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Implosive therapy
Imagine the situations that bring about high anxiety and prevent the person from engaging in avoidance tactics Embellished with psychodynamic themes
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EMDR
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing Originally for PTSD Lateral eye movements paired with CBT and psychodynamic techniques
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Criticism to EMDR
The lateral eye movements are dumb and needless
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Law of Effect
Thorndike Any response followed by a satisfying “state of affairs” will be repeated and any response followed by an annoying state of affairs is less likely to recur. Behaviors are instrumental to helping animals achieve a goal - instrumental learning
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Instrumental learning
Thorndike Behaviors can be instrumental to helping an organism achieve goals Laws of effect - if it’s pleasant and helps you achieve a goal, you’re more likely to do the thing
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Psychologist most associated with operant conditioning
Skinner
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Operant conditioning
Skinner The most complex behaviors are voluntarily emitted (or not) as a result of how they OPERATE on the environment (consequences)
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Positive v Negative Reinforcement v Punishment
Positive - application of a stimulus Negative - withholding or removing a stimulus Reinforcement - increases the behavior it follows Punishment - decreases the behavior it follows
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Positive reinforcement
The application of a stimulus (reinforcer) increases the performance of a behavior
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Negative reinforcement
Withdrawal or termination of a stimulus (reinforcer) leads to an increase in a given behavior
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Reinforcement
Increases the behavior it follows
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Punishment
Decreases the behavior that it follows
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Positive punishment
Behavior decreases as a result of applying a stimulus
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Negative punishment
Behavior decreases as a result of removing or withholding a stimulus
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Operant extinction
Occurs when reinforcement is consistently withheld from a previously reinforced behavior to decrease or eliminate that behavior
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Extinction (response) burst
Removal of a reinforcer does not automatically lead to extinction The extinction burst is the period just before extinction where the behavior occurs multiple times, sometimes more rapidly, despite there being no reinforcement
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Primary reinforcer
Aka unconditioned reinforcers Inherently desirable and do not depend on experience to acquire their reinforcing value (food, water)
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Secondary reinforcer
Aka conditioned reinforcer Acquire their value through pairing with a primary reinforcer
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Continuous schedule of reinforcement
Reward a behavior after each and every time it is done Behavior is learning quickest this way, however extinction also occurs most rapidly if you withdraw the reinforcer
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Four schedules of intermittent reinforcement
Fixed ratio Fixed interval Variable ratio Variable interval
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Fixed interval (FI) reinforcement schedule
Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time, regardless of the number of times the desired behavior occurs (must happen at least once per time interval) Produce low rates of responding because reward isn’t related to the number of behaviors... Produces a scallop curve as the behavior increases as the interval runs out, with decrease of behavior right after reinforcement
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Variable interval (VI) reinforcement schedule
Varied amount of time between when behaviors are reinforced (at least once per interval of time) Schedule produces a low but steady rate of response
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Fixed ratio (FR) reinforcement schedule
A reinforcer is delivered after a fixed number of behaviors are elicited Because the relationship between behavior and reward is explicit, FR schedules produce a high and steady rate of response (usually with a brief pause following the reward)
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Variable ratio (VR) reinforcement schedule
Reinforcers are provided after a varying number of times the behavior is elicited Because reinforcement is unpredictable, VR schedules produce the highest rates and responding and are most resistant to extinction
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Matching Law
Predicts the correspondence between responding to two or more alternatives and the frequency of reinforcement Ex. If two levers are present and one is on a VR-30 and one a VR-60, the matching law would predict that the VR-30 lever would receive approximately 2/3 of the behavior, and VR-60 would get one third
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Superstitious behavior
Caused by accidental, noncontingent reinforcement Eg. Reinforcing every fifteen seconds regardless of whether or not the desired behavior was being done or not Leads to odd, ritualistic behaviors
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Stimulus control
When the occurrence of a behavior is affected by the presence of discriminative stimuli (ex. Going a behavior when around someone more likely to reinforce or punish you) S^D - positive discriminative stimuli (signals response would be reinforced) S^- - negative discriminative stimuli (signals response would not be reinforced)
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Stimulus generalization | Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning - occurs when similar stimuli elicit the same response
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Response generalization | Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning When reinforcement increases the frequency of similar response Ex. Baby reinforced for “mama” may also say “dada,” “baba”, etc.
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Escape conditioning
A behavior increases because its performance allows her organism to escape an undesirable (aversive) stimulus
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Avoidance conditioning
The result of two-factor learning Onset of the negative reinforcer is proceeded by a cue that signals the negative reinforcer is about to be applied...the organism learns to not engage in the behavior in the presence of the cue
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Factors that influence positive reinforcement interventions
Contingency (reinf only available when behavior occurs) Immediacy (reinf should be delivered immediately after the behav) Schedule of Reinf (continuous for development, intermittent for maintenance...thinning) Magnitude (amount of reinf to the behav, watch for satiation) Verbal clarification (clarify relationship between behav and reinf verbally) Prompts (physical prompts can facilitate learning a new behav, then gradually decrease...fading)
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Satiation
When a reinforcer loses its value
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Thinning
The change from continuous to intermittent reinforcement
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Prompts
A verbal or physical signal or reminder to facilitate the acquisition of a new behavior
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Fading
Gradual removal of a prompt
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Effect of contingency on increasing behavior with reinforcement
There must be a contingent relationship between the behavior and the reinforcer The reinforce must only be available when the desired behavior occurs
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The impact of immediacy on increasing behavior with reinforcement
The reinforcer must be available immediately after the desired behavior
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The impact of reinforcement schedules on increasing behavior with reinforcement
Continuously reinforce the behavior for the quickest learning, then switch to an intermittent reinforcement schedule (Process of thinning)
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Impact of magnitude on increasing behaviors with reinforcement
The greater the amount of positive reinforcement the greater it’s effectiveness...up to a point Satiation occurs when the subject tires of the reinforcer (Primary reinforcers are more at risk for satiation)
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The impact of verbal clarification on increasing behavior with reinforcement
Effectiveness of the reinforcer is increased when the contingent relations is verbally clarified
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The impact of prompts on increasing behavior with reinforcement
Verbal or physical prompts facilitate the acquisition of a new behavior The gradual removal of prompts is known as fading
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Shaping
Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior (Reinforcing only behaviors that come closer and closer to a desired one) Only the final (terminal) behavior is of interest
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Chaining
Responsible for the acquisition of most complex behaviors The establishment of a behavior chain (series of stepwise behaviors, ex. Baking a cake) The entire sequence of responses is important
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Shaping v Chaining
Shaping is only concerned with the final behavior Chaining is concerned with the whole process of behaviors
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Premack Principle
Using a high probability behavior to reinforce a low probability behavior Particularly useful when it is difficult to identify an appropriately reinforcing stimulus Eg. Increasing study time in gamers by reinforcing study time with time playing games
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Differential reinforcement
Combines positive reinforcement (to facilitate one behavior) with extinction (to get another behavior to go away) Ex. Reinforcing a child for playing with toys instead of hand flapping (Playing with toys is positively reinforced, hand flapping is extinguished)
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Factors that influence attempts to decrease behavior with punishment
Immediacy of punishment Consistency of delivering punishment every time Intensity (moderate is best to avoid aggression or habituation) Verbal clarification of the contingency Removal of all positive reinforcement Reinforcement of alternative behaviors (or training)
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Habituation | Extinguishing behavior
When a punishment loses its effectiveness
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Impact of immediacy on decreasing behaviors with punishment
Behaviors are more easily extinguished with immediate punishment following the undesired behavior
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Impact of consistency on decreasing behaviors with punishment
Punishment must occur every time the undesirable behavior occurs to be successful
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Impact of intensity on decreasing behavior with punishment
Moderate punishment is best Too much = aggression, avoidance, more undesirable behaviors Too little = habituation to the punishment
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Impact of verbal clarification on decreasing behaviors with punishment
Most successful when you verbalize the behavior-punishment contingency relationship
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Impact of positive reinforcements in decreasing behavior with punishment
Punishment works best when all stimulus that have previously reinforced the behavior are identified and consistently withheld at the time the behavior is being punished
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Impact of reinforcing alternatives on decreasing behavior with punishment
Punishment only teaches what not to do, so you must provide guidance on what to do and reinforce that If the undesirable behavior is being done due to inadequate skills, punishment must be preceded with training in the skills that are lacking
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Research and professional opinions regarding punishment
Many consider it unethical, some will make exceptions when no other alternatives exist Punishment only suppresses behavior, not eliminates it - behavior may still continue in other contexts or situations Many negative side effects - fear of the punisher, aggression, negative emotions, escape, avoidance behavior
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Negative side effects of punishment
Many negative side effects - fear of the punisher, aggression, negative emotions, escape, avoidance behavior
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Types of punishment interventions
Verbal repremands Overcorrection (pos punishment - restitutions and positive practice) Negative practice (doing bad behav until it’s aversive) Response cost (negative punishment) Time out
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Verbal reprimands for punishment
“Stop!” or “No!” Not consistently effective - only temporary if not followed with other punishment interventions May be reinforcing if the bad behavior is done for attention
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Overcorrection for punishment intervention
Positive punishment - giving a penalty following an undesirable behavior Consists of two parts: restitution (correcting the negative effects of the behavior) and positive practice (practicing more appropriate behaviors)
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Negative practice for punishment
Process of repeating the undesirable behavior over and over until it becomes aversive or the person fatigues
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Response cost as a form of punishment
Negative punishment Receiving a specific reinforcer each time the undesired behavior is performed Ex. Having to pay late fees, speeding tickets...
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Time out as a form of punishment
Removing all sources of positive reinforcement for a brief period Made more effective by: Use with other punishment interventions Verbal clarification of why the timeout is taking place Appropriate lengths of time 5-10mins (longer ≠ better)
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Factors to consider for decreasing behaviors with extinction
Consistency of removing the positive reinforcements to the undesirable behavior Consistently removing the reinforcement (schedule of reinforcement) Reinforcement of other alternate behaviors The longer the behavior has existed, the harder it will be to extinguish
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The impact of consistency on extinction
For extinction to be effective positive reinforcement must be consistently withheld following the behavior (A single exception can lead to the reemergence or maintenance of the behavior)
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The impact of reinforcement schedules on extinction
Extinction is more rapid when the undesirable behavior is punished on a continuous schedule
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Impact of alternative reinforcement on extinction
Extinction of a behavior works best then preferred alternative behaviors are reinforced
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Impact of behavior duration/magnitude on extinction
The long and more severe the behavior has gone on for, the harder the extinction of the behavior will be
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Contingency Contract
A formal written agreement between two or more parties Explicitly states the behaviors that need to be changed, and the rewards and consequences for doing or not doing the behavior Five components make these effective: explicit, behavior can be monitored, clear consequences, clear rewards, tracking system
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Five important components to an effective contingency contract
The behavior must be explicitly stated in the contact The behavior in need of modification must be clearly observable/monitored The consequences should be clearly defined The rewards should be clearly defined A record keeping system should be established for regular feedback
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Level of involvement in contingency contracts
Work best when the person whose behavior is being modified actively participates in the development of the contract
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Token economy
System wherein desired behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers, that can be exchanged for primary reinforcers) Undesirable behavior results in the loss or withholding of tokens
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Four components of successful token economies
Clearly defined target behaviors Good selection of secondary and back up reinforcers System for monitoring and assessing the token economy Good development of a plan for thinning the reinforcers over time
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Advantages of token economy
Permit immediate delivery of reinforcement Can be tailored to the person (they can choose their backup rewards) Tokens are less susceptible to satiation because they can be exchanged for a variety of reinforcers
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What does social skills training try to improve in people
Communication skills, assertiveness, problem solving, and other socially adaptable skills
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Techniques used in social skills training
``` Modeling Coaching Behavior rehearsal Feedback Reinforcement Homework assignments ```
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Function-based intervention
Begins with a functional behavioral assessment where determine what reinforcers there are for an undesirable behavior, and find alternatives Based on any methods of data collection (self-report, observation, etc.)
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Psychologist associated with Latent Learning
Tolman
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What is Latent Learning
Proposition that learning can take place without reinforcement and without being manifested in performance improvement Ex. Rats developing a cognitive map of mazes without being reinforced to do so
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Psychologist associated with Insight Learning
Kohler
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What is insight learning
Kohler Proposition that learning can occur as a result of an insightful, “aha,” moment This reflects an act of cognitive restructuring of the environment to enhance an organisms ability to achieve goals (ex. Monkey and the stick)
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Psychologist most associated with observational learning
Bandura
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What is observational learning
Learning that occurs through observing another person Useful for learning new behaviors, enhancing behaviors, or inhibiting existing behaviors
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Observational learning requires what four processes
Attending - attending and accurately perceiving what is being observed Retention - processing what was observed into memory visually or verbally Production - observer must be able to do and rehearse the observed behavior Motivation - learner must be motivated to repeat the behavior they observed
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Model characteristics for increasing the likelihood of reproducing observed behavior
Model must have prestige or high ranking Model must be similar to the learner Model’s behavior must be visible and salient to the goals of the learner Model must be reinforced in some way for their behavior
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Guided participation
A procedure in observational learning The learner observed the behavior, then attempts the behavior with the assistance of the model
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Self-efficacy
The learners belief in their ability to engage in the behaviors necessary to achieve their goals Self efficacy is impacted by four sources of information: prior success (enactive attainment), vicarious experience, verbal persuasion (encouragement), and emotional and physiological states
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Four informational sources for self-efficacy
Enactive attainment - prior success in performing the task Vicarious experience - seeing others similar to you complete the task Verbal persuasion - encouragement Physiological and emotional states
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Reciprocal determinism
There is an interactive and influential relationship between a persons environment, their overt behaviors, and their cognitive and affective characteristic Bandura
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Learned helplessness (broad definition)
The tendency to give up any effort to control events in the environment
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Reformulated version of learned helplessness | Attributional reformulation
Depression occurs when a person makes internal, stable, and negative attributions for negative events to themselves... (...believe they will always cause negative events to happen to them, or thing they cause negative in all aspects of their lives)
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Psychologist associated with REBT
Albert Ellis
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Behavior chain in REBT
A - activating event B - beliefs about the event C - emotional and behavioral consequences of the beliefs D - disputing the irrational beliefs about the event E - alternative thoughts and emotions that come after disputing the irrational beliefs
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Psychologist associated with cognitive therapy
Aaron Beck
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Primary goal of cognitive therapy
Help clients identify and alter their distorted and dysfunctional assumptions
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Cognitive targets in CT
Schemas - core beliefs that impact how we perceive events Automatic thoughts - surface level thoughts that occur after the event but before the appraisal of emotions and behaviors (reveal schemas) Cognitive distortions - errors or biases in how you process information (maintain schemas) Cognitive profile - the set and predictable cognitive issues that form the basis for each diagnosis (ex. Cognitive triad in depression)
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Characteristics of CBT
Time limited - about 15 sessions Collaborative empiricism Present focused but may use historical info to clarify core beliefs Cognitions can be modifiable if you can make them affectively arousing Relapse prevention is ever present
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Strategies used in cognitive therapy
Collaborative empiricism - built rapport, collect data, test hypotheses about the clients beliefs and assumptions Socratic dialogue - questioning designed to help client reach logical conclusions about a problem and its consequences Daily record of dysfunctional thoughts - frequency, magnitude, and context
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Self-instructional training
Learn to modify maladaptive thoughts and behaviors through the use of covert self-statements Five steps: cognitive modeling, cognitive participant modeling, overt self-instruction, fading overt self-instruction, covert self-instruction
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Five steps to self-instructional therapy
Cognitive modeling - client watches a model perform a task and makes self-statements aloud (walking thru the task) Cognitive participant modeling - client performs the task while the model instructs aloud Overt self-instruction - client performs the task and makes self-statements aloud Fading overt self-instruction - client performs the task and whispers the self-statements Covert self-instruction - client performs the task and walks through the self-statements covertly
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Thought stopping
Saying “stop,” snapping a band around the wrist, making alternative and assertive self-statements (combined with covert self-instruction) Eliminates ruminating negative thoughts, obsessions, self-criticism, anxiety, etc.
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Attribution retraining
Altering the perceptions of the CAUSES of problematic behavior Increase optimism Take stable, internal, global attributions and make them unstable, external, and specific
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Stress inoculation
Increase coping skills to help a client deal with stress Three phases: Cognitive preparation - psychoed on cognition, behav, and stress Skills acquisition - learn and rehearse skills Final application and follow-through - use skills in imagined and in vivo stressful situations
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Problem solving therapy focuses around what two factors
Problem orientation - schemas surrounding a persons views about problems and their ability to solve them Problem-solving style - activities the individual engages in to solve problems
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Five skills relied upon for problem-solving therapy
Recognizing the problem Defining the problem Generating solutions Deciding which solution is best Engaging in and evaluating the solution
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Tenet of self-control therapy
Deficits in three aspects of self-control increase a persons vulnerability to depression and ability to deal with depressive symptoms Self-monitoring, self-evaluation, self-reinforcement
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Three procedures used in self-management
Self-monitoring (thought logs, consciousness raise and motivate change) Stimulus control (narrowing target behav to a specific context, cue strengthening in the environment, and fading the bad behavior for something better)
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Purpose of self-management procedures
Emphasize the clients responsibility for modifying their own behavior
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Two major models of memory
Information processing model (sensory, STM, LTM) Levels of processing model (structural, phonemic, semantic) - it’s the amount of processing, not memory in specific storage spaces
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Information processing model of memory
Memory consists of three components Sensory mem - retained for no more than a few seconds (echoic, iconic) STM - retained for about 30 seconds, 7 +/- 2 - includes working memory LTM - information that undergoes elaborative rehearsal (new info related to old), and is largely semantic
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Sensory memory
Part of the information-processing model of memory Can store a lot of info, but only for a few seconds Contains an iconic (visual) store and an echoic (auditory) store
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Short term memory
Part of the information processing model of memory Information goes here when sensory memory is attended to, short term memory is largely acoustic in nature Storage capacity of 7 +/- 2, lasts for about 30 seconds Working memory is part of STM, involves the mental manipulation of info
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Long term memory
Part of the information processing model of memory Info gets into LTM after elaborative rehearsal (relates new information to existing information) LTM is largely semantic, and storage seems unlimited
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Serial position effect
Part of the information processing model of memory You recall info at the beginning and end of a list better than info in the middle Primary effect occurs because that info has already been rehearsed, recency effect occurs because that info is still in STM
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Levels of processing model of memory
Differences in memory are due to differences in the depth of processing, rather than to separate memory stores Three levels of processing involved: structural (actual letters that make up a word), phonemic (sounds like...), and semantic (meaning)
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Three major components of long term memory
Procedural memory - memory for how to do things Declarative memory - memory for general facts and information (semantic (general) and episodic (personally relevant)) Prospective memory - memory for remembering to do things in the future
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Procedural memory
Part of long term memory Stores information about how to do things Responsible for the acquisition, retention, and employment of perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills and habits
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Declarative memory
Part of long term memory Mediates the acquisition of general information and facts Subdivided into semantic (general info without context) and episodic (personally relevant, flashbulb memories)
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Flashbulb memories
Vivid, detailed images of what you were doing at the time of a dramatic event
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Implicit vs explicit aspects of LTM
Implicit (automatic) = procedural - basal ganglia and cerebellum Explicit (requires conscious recollection) = declarative - hippocampus and frontal lobes
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Multi-component model of working memory
Working memory contains a central executive and three subsystems... Central exec is the attn control system, filters out stimuli, and coordinates the subsystems Subs: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer (integrates visual, auditory, and spatial)
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Filter theory of selective attention
Explains how information is transferred from sensory memory to STM Two sensory stimuli are presented, one is filtered and processed for physical characteristics while the other is buffered for later processing, the attended to stimuli is processed for meaning and comes into conscious awareness
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Feature-integration theory
Explains the processing of visual information Preattentive stage - basic features of an object (color, shape, etc.) are perceived in parallel subconsciously Attentive stage - the features are processed serially to form a coherent whole object (which is how it is remembered from here on out)
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Accuracy of memories are impacted by...
Schemas (alter perception) Construction (combine new and old memory bits, leads to the formation of inaccurate memories...or false memories)
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Psychologist who initially studied forgetting
Ebbinghaus
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Trace decay theory of memory
Learning produces a trace or change in your brain (engram) ...Forgetting is due to the disuse of that brain trace Research shows this theory is not super accurate...studies have shown interference is predominantly responsible for forgetting, not decay
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Interference theory of forgetting
Forgetting occurs when the recall of information is affected by information acquired previously or subsequently Interference is most likely when new and old information are similar Two types of interference: proactive (old impacts new) and retroactive (new impacts old)
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Cue-defendant forgetting
Forgetting results when cues needed to retrieve the information from LTM are incomplete or insufficient Eg. Tip of the tongue phenomenon
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Four ways to improve memory
Encoding specificity (same cues present during encoding and recall - state dependent learning with emotions) Elaborative rehearsal (connecting new info with old) Mnemonics (visual and verbal) Appropriate levels of arousal (Yerkes-Dodson Law)
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Two types of mnemonics
Visual - method of loci - keyword method (paired words) Verbal - acronym (SPACERAGS) - acrostic (see Piaget creep forward)
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Method of loci
Type visual mnemonic Person forms an image of each item to remember Visualize the items in places in space (loci) To recall, walk through the space (like a home) and recall the items