Learning, CBT, and Memory Flashcards
Founder of classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Process of classical conditioning
A naturally occurring stimulus (US) produces a natural response (UR)
Pair a neutral stimulus with the US, and the neutral stimulus will then produce a response (CR)
Effects of temporal relationships in conditioning
The CS must precede and overlap with the US (ideally by 0.5 seconds) for the best effect - called delay conditioning
Second best is trace conditioning, when you present and terminate the CS before showing the US.
Even less effective is simultaneous conditioning, when you show the neutral stimulus and the US at the same time
Worst is backward conditioning - US, then CS - produces no conditioning
Impact of the number of conditioning trials in classical conditioning
The greater the number of conditioning trials, the stronger the CR
However, the strength of the CR will likely always be a bit weaker than the UR
Impacts of pre-exposure on classical conditioning
Repeated exposure to the US or CS before they are paired slows down the acquisition of the CR
Classical extinction
The gradual disappearance of the CR with the CS
To avoid: add in occasional refresher trials with the CS and US pairing
Following extinction, fewer trials are needed to get the CS-CR response back
Spontaneous Recovery
In the days following an extinction, the CS can still elicit a weak CR
Demonstrates that learning is never lost (per Pavlov), it is just inhibited
(The CR is suppressed, rather than eliminated)
Stimulus generalization
When stimuli similar to the CS also produce a CR
In some instances, this can also occur across senses
Stimulus discrimination
The ability to discriminate between the CS and stimuli similar to the CS
Stimulus discrimination is established through discrimination training, where you selectively reinforce the CS, and don’t reinforce the similar stimuli
Experimental neurosis
Occurs during discrimination training when the animal/subject can no longer distinguish between the CS and the similar objects (when the two stimuli are too similar)
Dogs in Pavlov’s studies would exhibit agitation, aggressiveness, restlessness
Higher-order conditioning
Pair a CS with a neutral stimulus, which then becomes the higher-order conditioned stimulus
Explains how CRs are acquired in the absence of a US
Blocking
When you present a CS, US, and neutral stimulus at the same time
The presence of the CS will block the pairing of the US and neutral stimulus
Overshadowing
If you pair two neutral stimuli with a US to elicit a CR…
If you break up the two neutral stimuli, only one will come to elicit the CR and the other will not
Little Albert
John Watson
Classical conditioning with a baby
White rats, stimulus generalization
Interventions based on counterconditioning are based on the underlying technique of reciprocal inhibition…
What is reciprocal inhibition?
Pairing a stimulus that invokes anxiety (CS) with a stimulus that invokes relation (CS)
Pair the anxiety-provoking stimuli with something naturally relaxing (US)
Two types of interventions based on counterconditioning
Systematic desensitization
Behavioral sex therapy
Four stages to systematic desensitization
Relaxation training (PMR, imagery)
Construction of the hierarchy (10-15 events, SUDS 1-100)
Desensitization in imagination (start from bottom of hierarchy; relax, then imagine, then bring back to relaxation)
In vivo desensitization (do after 75-85% imagination, do with things already desensitized via imagination)
Evaluation research on systematic desensitization
Extinction is responsible for systematic desensitization (as opposed to the combination of anxiety and counter-relaxation states)
Behavioral Sex Therapy is best indicated for…
Disorders related to (or exacerbated by) performance anxiety
Premature ejaculation (squeeze technique is prominent)
Vaginismus (relaxation with dilators is prominent)
How behavioral sex therapy works
Through use of senate focus
Pairing a situation that avoids anxiety with pleasurable sensations and relaxation
Ex. Abstaining from sex and focusing only on non-genital touching or massage for pleasure, then progressing to non-demand genital touching
Two interventions based on aversive counterconditioning
In vivo aversion therapy
Covert sensitization
In vivo aversion therapy
Form of aversive counterconditioning
Pair a maladaptive behavior (CS) with a US that naturally elicits a noxious response (shock, odor, emetic drug)
Types of conditions that may benefit from aversive counterconditioning
Substance use disorders
Paraphilias
Self-injurious behavior
Research on aversive counterconditioning
Most effective with cigarette smoking, moderately effective sometimes in the short term for everything else
High relapse rates, limited generalizability
Most effective when the adverse method is similar to the maladaptive method (eg. alcoholism with taking a drug), AND when supplemented with other treatment modalities
Covert sensitization process
Type of aversive counterconditioning
Imagining the noxious event (in as much detail as possible) while willfully engaging in the maladaptive behavior (Ex. Smoking and imagining feeling nauseous, vomiting, and being embarrassed)
May also incorporate a “relief scene” where you imagine not doing the maladaptive behavior and experiencing relaxation
Three therapies based on classical extinction techniques
In vivo exposure and response prevention
Implosive therapy
EMDR
Two variations to in vivo exposure with response prevention
Flooding - highest ranking anxiety stimulus for a prolonged period of time
Graded - start with the lowest stimulus and work up to the highest
In vivo expose and response prevention
Exposed to real-life anxiety-inducing events for prolonged periods, and prohibiting the person from engaging in avoidance behaviors or rituals
Evaluation of in vivo and response prevention therapy
Exposure AND response prevention are both needed
Prolonged exposure > several brief exposures
High anxiety situations may not always be necessary
Group and self-directed treatments can be as equally efficacious
Implosive therapy
Imagine the situations that bring about high anxiety and prevent the person from engaging in avoidance tactics
Embellished with psychodynamic themes
EMDR
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
Originally for PTSD
Lateral eye movements paired with CBT and psychodynamic techniques
Criticism to EMDR
The lateral eye movements are dumb and needless
Law of Effect
Thorndike
Any response followed by a satisfying “state of affairs” will be repeated and any response followed by an annoying state of affairs is less likely to recur.
Behaviors are instrumental to helping animals achieve a goal - instrumental learning
Instrumental learning
Thorndike
Behaviors can be instrumental to helping an organism achieve goals
Laws of effect - if it’s pleasant and helps you achieve a goal, you’re more likely to do the thing
Psychologist most associated with operant conditioning
Skinner
Operant conditioning
Skinner
The most complex behaviors are voluntarily emitted (or not) as a result of how they OPERATE on the environment (consequences)
Positive v Negative
Reinforcement v Punishment
Positive - application of a stimulus
Negative - withholding or removing a stimulus
Reinforcement - increases the behavior it follows
Punishment - decreases the behavior it follows
Positive reinforcement
The application of a stimulus (reinforcer) increases the performance of a behavior
Negative reinforcement
Withdrawal or termination of a stimulus (reinforcer) leads to an increase in a given behavior
Reinforcement
Increases the behavior it follows
Punishment
Decreases the behavior that it follows
Positive punishment
Behavior decreases as a result of applying a stimulus
Negative punishment
Behavior decreases as a result of removing or withholding a stimulus
Operant extinction
Occurs when reinforcement is consistently withheld from a previously reinforced behavior to decrease or eliminate that behavior
Extinction (response) burst
Removal of a reinforcer does not automatically lead to extinction
The extinction burst is the period just before extinction where the behavior occurs multiple times, sometimes more rapidly, despite there being no reinforcement
Primary reinforcer
Aka unconditioned reinforcers
Inherently desirable and do not depend on experience to acquire their reinforcing value (food, water)
Secondary reinforcer
Aka conditioned reinforcer
Acquire their value through pairing with a primary reinforcer
Continuous schedule of reinforcement
Reward a behavior after each and every time it is done
Behavior is learning quickest this way, however extinction also occurs most rapidly if you withdraw the reinforcer
Four schedules of intermittent reinforcement
Fixed ratio
Fixed interval
Variable ratio
Variable interval
Fixed interval (FI) reinforcement schedule
Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time, regardless of the number of times the desired behavior occurs (must happen at least once per time interval)
Produce low rates of responding because reward isn’t related to the number of behaviors… Produces a scallop curve as the behavior increases as the interval runs out, with decrease of behavior right after reinforcement
Variable interval (VI) reinforcement schedule
Varied amount of time between when behaviors are reinforced (at least once per interval of time)
Schedule produces a low but steady rate of response
Fixed ratio (FR) reinforcement schedule
A reinforcer is delivered after a fixed number of behaviors are elicited
Because the relationship between behavior and reward is explicit, FR schedules produce a high and steady rate of response (usually with a brief pause following the reward)
Variable ratio (VR) reinforcement schedule
Reinforcers are provided after a varying number of times the behavior is elicited
Because reinforcement is unpredictable, VR schedules produce the highest rates and responding and are most resistant to extinction
Matching Law
Predicts the correspondence between responding to two or more alternatives and the frequency of reinforcement
Ex. If two levers are present and one is on a VR-30 and one a VR-60, the matching law would predict that the VR-30 lever would receive approximately 2/3 of the behavior, and VR-60 would get one third
Superstitious behavior
Caused by accidental, noncontingent reinforcement
Eg. Reinforcing every fifteen seconds regardless of whether or not the desired behavior was being done or not
Leads to odd, ritualistic behaviors
Stimulus control
When the occurrence of a behavior is affected by the presence of discriminative stimuli (ex. Going a behavior when around someone more likely to reinforce or punish you)
S^D - positive discriminative stimuli (signals response would be reinforced)
S^- - negative discriminative stimuli (signals response would not be reinforced)
Stimulus generalization
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning
- occurs when similar stimuli elicit the same response
Response generalization
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning
When reinforcement increases the frequency of similar response
Ex. Baby reinforced for “mama” may also say “dada,” “baba”, etc.
Escape conditioning
A behavior increases because its performance allows her organism to escape an undesirable (aversive) stimulus
Avoidance conditioning
The result of two-factor learning
Onset of the negative reinforcer is proceeded by a cue that signals the negative reinforcer is about to be applied…the organism learns to not engage in the behavior in the presence of the cue
Factors that influence positive reinforcement interventions
Contingency (reinf only available when behavior occurs)
Immediacy (reinf should be delivered immediately after the behav)
Schedule of Reinf (continuous for development, intermittent for maintenance…thinning)
Magnitude (amount of reinf to the behav, watch for satiation)
Verbal clarification (clarify relationship between behav and reinf verbally)
Prompts (physical prompts can facilitate learning a new behav, then gradually decrease…fading)
Satiation
When a reinforcer loses its value
Thinning
The change from continuous to intermittent reinforcement
Prompts
A verbal or physical signal or reminder to facilitate the acquisition of a new behavior
Fading
Gradual removal of a prompt
Effect of contingency on increasing behavior with reinforcement
There must be a contingent relationship between the behavior and the reinforcer
The reinforce must only be available when the desired behavior occurs
The impact of immediacy on increasing behavior with reinforcement
The reinforcer must be available immediately after the desired behavior
The impact of reinforcement schedules on increasing behavior with reinforcement
Continuously reinforce the behavior for the quickest learning, then switch to an intermittent reinforcement schedule
(Process of thinning)
Impact of magnitude on increasing behaviors with reinforcement
The greater the amount of positive reinforcement the greater it’s effectiveness…up to a point
Satiation occurs when the subject tires of the reinforcer
(Primary reinforcers are more at risk for satiation)
The impact of verbal clarification on increasing behavior with reinforcement
Effectiveness of the reinforcer is increased when the contingent relations is verbally clarified
The impact of prompts on increasing behavior with reinforcement
Verbal or physical prompts facilitate the acquisition of a new behavior
The gradual removal of prompts is known as fading
Shaping
Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior
(Reinforcing only behaviors that come closer and closer to a desired one)
Only the final (terminal) behavior is of interest
Chaining
Responsible for the acquisition of most complex behaviors
The establishment of a behavior chain (series of stepwise behaviors, ex. Baking a cake)
The entire sequence of responses is important
Shaping v Chaining
Shaping is only concerned with the final behavior
Chaining is concerned with the whole process of behaviors
Premack Principle
Using a high probability behavior to reinforce a low probability behavior
Particularly useful when it is difficult to identify an appropriately reinforcing stimulus
Eg. Increasing study time in gamers by reinforcing study time with time playing games
Differential reinforcement
Combines positive reinforcement (to facilitate one behavior) with extinction (to get another behavior to go away)
Ex. Reinforcing a child for playing with toys instead of hand flapping
(Playing with toys is positively reinforced, hand flapping is extinguished)
Factors that influence attempts to decrease behavior with punishment
Immediacy of punishment
Consistency of delivering punishment every time
Intensity (moderate is best to avoid aggression or habituation)
Verbal clarification of the contingency
Removal of all positive reinforcement
Reinforcement of alternative behaviors (or training)
Habituation
Extinguishing behavior
When a punishment loses its effectiveness
Impact of immediacy on decreasing behaviors with punishment
Behaviors are more easily extinguished with immediate punishment following the undesired behavior
Impact of consistency on decreasing behaviors with punishment
Punishment must occur every time the undesirable behavior occurs to be successful
Impact of intensity on decreasing behavior with punishment
Moderate punishment is best
Too much = aggression, avoidance, more undesirable behaviors
Too little = habituation to the punishment
Impact of verbal clarification on decreasing behaviors with punishment
Most successful when you verbalize the behavior-punishment contingency relationship
Impact of positive reinforcements in decreasing behavior with punishment
Punishment works best when all stimulus that have previously reinforced the behavior are identified and consistently withheld at the time the behavior is being punished
Impact of reinforcing alternatives on decreasing behavior with punishment
Punishment only teaches what not to do, so you must provide guidance on what to do and reinforce that
If the undesirable behavior is being done due to inadequate skills, punishment must be preceded with training in the skills that are lacking
Research and professional opinions regarding punishment
Many consider it unethical, some will make exceptions when no other alternatives exist
Punishment only suppresses behavior, not eliminates it - behavior may still continue in other contexts or situations
Many negative side effects - fear of the punisher, aggression, negative emotions, escape, avoidance behavior
Negative side effects of punishment
Many negative side effects - fear of the punisher, aggression, negative emotions, escape, avoidance behavior
Types of punishment interventions
Verbal repremands
Overcorrection (pos punishment - restitutions and positive practice)
Negative practice (doing bad behav until it’s aversive)
Response cost (negative punishment)
Time out
Verbal reprimands for punishment
“Stop!” or “No!”
Not consistently effective - only temporary if not followed with other punishment interventions
May be reinforcing if the bad behavior is done for attention
Overcorrection for punishment intervention
Positive punishment - giving a penalty following an undesirable behavior
Consists of two parts: restitution (correcting the negative effects of the behavior) and positive practice (practicing more appropriate behaviors)
Negative practice for punishment
Process of repeating the undesirable behavior over and over until it becomes aversive or the person fatigues
Response cost as a form of punishment
Negative punishment
Receiving a specific reinforcer each time the undesired behavior is performed
Ex. Having to pay late fees, speeding tickets…
Time out as a form of punishment
Removing all sources of positive reinforcement for a brief period
Made more effective by:
Use with other punishment interventions
Verbal clarification of why the timeout is taking place
Appropriate lengths of time 5-10mins (longer ≠ better)
Factors to consider for decreasing behaviors with extinction
Consistency of removing the positive reinforcements to the undesirable behavior
Consistently removing the reinforcement (schedule of reinforcement)
Reinforcement of other alternate behaviors
The longer the behavior has existed, the harder it will be to extinguish
The impact of consistency on extinction
For extinction to be effective positive reinforcement must be consistently withheld following the behavior
(A single exception can lead to the reemergence or maintenance of the behavior)
The impact of reinforcement schedules on extinction
Extinction is more rapid when the undesirable behavior is punished on a continuous schedule
Impact of alternative reinforcement on extinction
Extinction of a behavior works best then preferred alternative behaviors are reinforced
Impact of behavior duration/magnitude on extinction
The long and more severe the behavior has gone on for, the harder the extinction of the behavior will be
Contingency Contract
A formal written agreement between two or more parties
Explicitly states the behaviors that need to be changed, and the rewards and consequences for doing or not doing the behavior
Five components make these effective: explicit, behavior can be monitored, clear consequences, clear rewards, tracking system
Five important components to an effective contingency contract
The behavior must be explicitly stated in the contact
The behavior in need of modification must be clearly observable/monitored
The consequences should be clearly defined
The rewards should be clearly defined
A record keeping system should be established for regular feedback
Level of involvement in contingency contracts
Work best when the person whose behavior is being modified actively participates in the development of the contract
Token economy
System wherein desired behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers, that can be exchanged for primary reinforcers)
Undesirable behavior results in the loss or withholding of tokens
Four components of successful token economies
Clearly defined target behaviors
Good selection of secondary and back up reinforcers
System for monitoring and assessing the token economy
Good development of a plan for thinning the reinforcers over time
Advantages of token economy
Permit immediate delivery of reinforcement
Can be tailored to the person (they can choose their backup rewards)
Tokens are less susceptible to satiation because they can be exchanged for a variety of reinforcers
What does social skills training try to improve in people
Communication skills, assertiveness, problem solving, and other socially adaptable skills
Techniques used in social skills training
Modeling Coaching Behavior rehearsal Feedback Reinforcement Homework assignments
Function-based intervention
Begins with a functional behavioral assessment where determine what reinforcers there are for an undesirable behavior, and find alternatives
Based on any methods of data collection (self-report, observation, etc.)
Psychologist associated with Latent Learning
Tolman
What is Latent Learning
Proposition that learning can take place without reinforcement and without being manifested in performance improvement
Ex. Rats developing a cognitive map of mazes without being reinforced to do so
Psychologist associated with Insight Learning
Kohler
What is insight learning
Kohler
Proposition that learning can occur as a result of an insightful, “aha,” moment
This reflects an act of cognitive restructuring of the environment to enhance an organisms ability to achieve goals (ex. Monkey and the stick)
Psychologist most associated with observational learning
Bandura
What is observational learning
Learning that occurs through observing another person
Useful for learning new behaviors, enhancing behaviors, or inhibiting existing behaviors
Observational learning requires what four processes
Attending - attending and accurately perceiving what is being observed
Retention - processing what was observed into memory visually or verbally
Production - observer must be able to do and rehearse the observed behavior
Motivation - learner must be motivated to repeat the behavior they observed
Model characteristics for increasing the likelihood of reproducing observed behavior
Model must have prestige or high ranking
Model must be similar to the learner
Model’s behavior must be visible and salient to the goals of the learner
Model must be reinforced in some way for their behavior
Guided participation
A procedure in observational learning
The learner observed the behavior, then attempts the behavior with the assistance of the model
Self-efficacy
The learners belief in their ability to engage in the behaviors necessary to achieve their goals
Self efficacy is impacted by four sources of information: prior success (enactive attainment), vicarious experience, verbal persuasion (encouragement), and emotional and physiological states
Four informational sources for self-efficacy
Enactive attainment - prior success in performing the task
Vicarious experience - seeing others similar to you complete the task
Verbal persuasion - encouragement
Physiological and emotional states
Reciprocal determinism
There is an interactive and influential relationship between a persons environment, their overt behaviors, and their cognitive and affective characteristic
Bandura
Learned helplessness (broad definition)
The tendency to give up any effort to control events in the environment
Reformulated version of learned helplessness
Attributional reformulation
Depression occurs when a person makes internal, stable, and negative attributions for negative events to themselves…
(…believe they will always cause negative events to happen to them, or thing they cause negative in all aspects of their lives)
Psychologist associated with REBT
Albert Ellis
Behavior chain in REBT
A - activating event
B - beliefs about the event
C - emotional and behavioral consequences of the beliefs
D - disputing the irrational beliefs about the event
E - alternative thoughts and emotions that come after disputing the irrational beliefs
Psychologist associated with cognitive therapy
Aaron Beck
Primary goal of cognitive therapy
Help clients identify and alter their distorted and dysfunctional assumptions
Cognitive targets in CT
Schemas - core beliefs that impact how we perceive events
Automatic thoughts - surface level thoughts that occur after the event but before the appraisal of emotions and behaviors (reveal schemas)
Cognitive distortions - errors or biases in how you process information (maintain schemas)
Cognitive profile - the set and predictable cognitive issues that form the basis for each diagnosis (ex. Cognitive triad in depression)
Characteristics of CBT
Time limited - about 15 sessions
Collaborative empiricism
Present focused but may use historical info to clarify core beliefs
Cognitions can be modifiable if you can make them affectively arousing
Relapse prevention is ever present
Strategies used in cognitive therapy
Collaborative empiricism - built rapport, collect data, test hypotheses about the clients beliefs and assumptions
Socratic dialogue - questioning designed to help client reach logical conclusions about a problem and its consequences
Daily record of dysfunctional thoughts - frequency, magnitude, and context
Self-instructional training
Learn to modify maladaptive thoughts and behaviors through the use of covert self-statements
Five steps: cognitive modeling, cognitive participant modeling, overt self-instruction, fading overt self-instruction, covert self-instruction
Five steps to self-instructional therapy
Cognitive modeling - client watches a model perform a task and makes self-statements aloud (walking thru the task)
Cognitive participant modeling - client performs the task while the model instructs aloud
Overt self-instruction - client performs the task and makes self-statements aloud
Fading overt self-instruction - client performs the task and whispers the self-statements
Covert self-instruction - client performs the task and walks through the self-statements covertly
Thought stopping
Saying “stop,” snapping a band around the wrist, making alternative and assertive self-statements (combined with covert self-instruction)
Eliminates ruminating negative thoughts, obsessions, self-criticism, anxiety, etc.
Attribution retraining
Altering the perceptions of the CAUSES of problematic behavior
Increase optimism
Take stable, internal, global attributions and make them unstable, external, and specific
Stress inoculation
Increase coping skills to help a client deal with stress
Three phases:
Cognitive preparation - psychoed on cognition, behav, and stress
Skills acquisition - learn and rehearse skills
Final application and follow-through - use skills in imagined and in vivo stressful situations
Problem solving therapy focuses around what two factors
Problem orientation - schemas surrounding a persons views about problems and their ability to solve them
Problem-solving style - activities the individual engages in to solve problems
Five skills relied upon for problem-solving therapy
Recognizing the problem
Defining the problem
Generating solutions
Deciding which solution is best
Engaging in and evaluating the solution
Tenet of self-control therapy
Deficits in three aspects of self-control increase a persons vulnerability to depression and ability to deal with depressive symptoms
Self-monitoring, self-evaluation, self-reinforcement
Three procedures used in self-management
Self-monitoring (thought logs, consciousness raise and motivate change)
Stimulus control (narrowing target behav to a specific context, cue strengthening in the environment, and fading the bad behavior for something better)
Purpose of self-management procedures
Emphasize the clients responsibility for modifying their own behavior
Two major models of memory
Information processing model (sensory, STM, LTM)
Levels of processing model (structural, phonemic, semantic)
- it’s the amount of processing, not memory in specific storage spaces
Information processing model of memory
Memory consists of three components
Sensory mem - retained for no more than a few seconds (echoic, iconic)
STM - retained for about 30 seconds, 7 +/- 2 - includes working memory
LTM - information that undergoes elaborative rehearsal (new info related to old), and is largely semantic
Sensory memory
Part of the information-processing model of memory
Can store a lot of info, but only for a few seconds
Contains an iconic (visual) store and an echoic (auditory) store
Short term memory
Part of the information processing model of memory
Information goes here when sensory memory is attended to, short term memory is largely acoustic in nature
Storage capacity of 7 +/- 2, lasts for about 30 seconds
Working memory is part of STM, involves the mental manipulation of info
Long term memory
Part of the information processing model of memory
Info gets into LTM after elaborative rehearsal (relates new information to existing information)
LTM is largely semantic, and storage seems unlimited
Serial position effect
Part of the information processing model of memory
You recall info at the beginning and end of a list better than info in the middle
Primary effect occurs because that info has already been rehearsed, recency effect occurs because that info is still in STM
Levels of processing model of memory
Differences in memory are due to differences in the depth of processing, rather than to separate memory stores
Three levels of processing involved: structural (actual letters that make up a word), phonemic (sounds like…), and semantic (meaning)
Three major components of long term memory
Procedural memory - memory for how to do things
Declarative memory - memory for general facts and information (semantic (general) and episodic (personally relevant))
Prospective memory - memory for remembering to do things in the future
Procedural memory
Part of long term memory
Stores information about how to do things
Responsible for the acquisition, retention, and employment of perceptual, cognitive, and motor skills and habits
Declarative memory
Part of long term memory
Mediates the acquisition of general information and facts
Subdivided into semantic (general info without context) and episodic (personally relevant, flashbulb memories)
Flashbulb memories
Vivid, detailed images of what you were doing at the time of a dramatic event
Implicit vs explicit aspects of LTM
Implicit (automatic) = procedural
- basal ganglia and cerebellum
Explicit (requires conscious recollection) = declarative
- hippocampus and frontal lobes
Multi-component model of working memory
Working memory contains a central executive and three subsystems…
Central exec is the attn control system, filters out stimuli, and coordinates the subsystems
Subs: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer (integrates visual, auditory, and spatial)
Filter theory of selective attention
Explains how information is transferred from sensory memory to STM
Two sensory stimuli are presented,
one is filtered and processed for physical characteristics while the other is buffered for later processing,
the attended to stimuli is processed for meaning and comes into conscious awareness
Feature-integration theory
Explains the processing of visual information
Preattentive stage - basic features of an object (color, shape, etc.) are perceived in parallel subconsciously
Attentive stage - the features are processed serially to form a coherent whole object (which is how it is remembered from here on out)
Accuracy of memories are impacted by…
Schemas (alter perception)
Construction (combine new and old memory bits, leads to the formation of inaccurate memories…or false memories)
Psychologist who initially studied forgetting
Ebbinghaus
Trace decay theory of memory
Learning produces a trace or change in your brain (engram)
…Forgetting is due to the disuse of that brain trace
Research shows this theory is not super accurate…studies have shown interference is predominantly responsible for forgetting, not decay
Interference theory of forgetting
Forgetting occurs when the recall of information is affected by information acquired previously or subsequently
Interference is most likely when new and old information are similar
Two types of interference: proactive (old impacts new) and retroactive (new impacts old)
Cue-defendant forgetting
Forgetting results when cues needed to retrieve the information from LTM are incomplete or insufficient
Eg. Tip of the tongue phenomenon
Four ways to improve memory
Encoding specificity (same cues present during encoding and recall - state dependent learning with emotions)
Elaborative rehearsal (connecting new info with old)
Mnemonics (visual and verbal)
Appropriate levels of arousal (Yerkes-Dodson Law)
Two types of mnemonics
Visual
- method of loci
- keyword method (paired words)
Verbal
- acronym (SPACERAGS)
- acrostic (see Piaget creep forward)
Method of loci
Type visual mnemonic
Person forms an image of each item to remember
Visualize the items in places in space (loci)
To recall, walk through the space (like a home) and recall the items
