Lesson Two: Logic Games, Logical Reasoning, & Reading Comprehension

Question 1

–LOGIC GAMES & LOGICAL REASONING–

Question 2

Logical Opposite

Answer 2

divides subject into two separate parts.

e.g. Logical Opposite of Hot = NOT Hot

Question 3

Two state something as a _______________ _______________ you add “_______” ahead of the subject / term.

Answer 3

logical opposite; NOT

Question 4

If Not Hot is the logical opposite of Hot, then why is it wrong to say that “cold” is the logical opposite of hot?

Answer 4

cold is a polar opposite.

Not Hot is the opposite (answer) that covers the entire range of other temperatures that are the opposite of hot (lukewarm, tepid, cold etc.)

Question 5

Polar Opposite

Answer 5

Involves dividing a subject on a spectrum.

Question 6

Logical Opposites – Quantity

All: give quantity (%) and logical opposite

Some: give quantity (%) and logical opposite

Answer 6

All: 100%
Not All: 0-99%

Some: 1-100% (everything but none)
None: (Not Some = Not at least 1 = 0 = None) 0%

Question 7

So we know “______” and “________” are _____________ opposites (at two extremes of a pole), and there are several quantities that operate on a _______________ between them. However, “______” and “______ _________”, and “________” and “__________” are “__________” opposites.

Answer 7

All; None; polar; spectrum; All; Not All; Some; None

Question 8

Logical Opposition – Time

Always: give quantity (%) and logical opposite

Sometimes: give quantity (%) and logical opposite

Answer 8

Always: 100% all the time
Not Always: 0-99% of the time

Sometimes: 1-100% of the time
Never: 0% of the time

Question 9

Logical Opposition – Space

Everywhere: give quantity (%) and logical opposite

Somewhere: give quantity (%) and logical opposite

Answer 9

Everywhere: 100% in all places
Not Everywhere: 0-99% of places

Somewhere: 1-100% of places
Nowhere: 0% of places

Question 10

State the Equivalences of Logical Opposites across Space and Time

Answer 10

Always Everywhere
]—————————[
Not Always Not Everywhere

Sometimes Somewhere
]—————————[
Never Nowhere

Question 11

The Opposition Construct: Truth and Falsity

Answer 11

False: True
Cannot Be False = Must Be True
Could Be False = Not Necessarily True
Not Necessarily False = Could Be True
Must Be False = Cannot Be True

Question 12

A trend we’re seeing here is that in ________________ there are logical _____________, but in _________________ there are logical ________________.

Answer 12

verticality; opposites; horizontality; equivalences.

Question 13

Don’t waste time trying to answer a question under _________________. Save ______________ can covert the _____________ to a question under _______________.

Answer 13

falsity; time; falsity; truth

Question 14

Example: If you have a problem asking you “Which one of the following could be false?” how should you really answer this question.

Answer 14

Could Be False –> logical opposite = Could Not Be False = Not Necessarily True

“Which one of the following is not necessarily true?”

Question 15

Sufficient Condition

Answer 15

term that requires a necessary condition to occur.

Question 16

Necessary Condition

Answer 16

term that is required for the sufficient condition to occur.

Question 17

“If you get an A+, then you must have studied.”

Identify the sufficient and necessary condition.

Answer 17

Sufficient Condition: getting an A+
Necessary Condition: you studied

Question 18

If the ________________ condition happens, you know the _____________ must also occur. However, the occurrence of the _____________ condition does not mean the ________________ condition has to occur (it MAY but it doesn’t have to).

Answer 18

sufficient; necessary

Question 19

Explain what your conditional rules should look like when diagramming.

Answer 19

The sufficient condition should be on the left, the necessary condition should be on the right.

Question 20

Mistaken Reversal

(“If you get an A+, then you must have studied.”)

Answer 20

Says the necessary condition is required for the sufficient condition to occur.

E.g. If you studied, then you will get an A+
–> You studying doesn’t guarantee you’ll get an A+.

Question 21

Mistaken Negation

(“If you get an A+, then you must have studied.”)

Answer 21

Says if the sufficient condition doesn’t occur, then the necessary condition doesn’t occur.

E.g. If you didn’t get an A+, then you must not have studied.
–> I could’ve very well studied and still gotten a different grade.

Question 22

Contrapositive

(“If you get an A+, then you must have studied.”)

Answer 22

If the necessary condition didn’t occur, the sufficient condition didn’t occur (flip and negate).

E.g. If you didn’t study, then you didn’t get an A+
̶st̶u̶d̶y̶ → ̶A̶+̶

Question 23

Sufficient Condition Indicators

Answer 23

if
when
whenever
every
all
any
people who
in order to
“the only”

Question 24

Necessary Condition Indicators

Answer 24

then
only
only if
must
required
*unless
*except
*until
*without

Question 25

Using the rules we’ve learned thus far, diagram the sentence, “Whenever the President flies, he uses Air Force One.” Also give it’s contrapositive

Answer 25

Whenever –> sufficient condition indicator
“Whenever the President flies”: P
“he uses Air Force One”: AF1

P→AF1

Contrapositive: A̶F̶1̶ → ̶P̶

Question 26

Explain Chain Relationships.

Provide an example using A/B, B/C, a chain relationship, an inference, and its contrapositive.

Answer 26

If the same variable is the necessary condition in one sentence, and the sufficient condition in another sentence, then the two sentences can be conjoined because the variable links them together.

Statement 1: A→B
Statement 2: B→C
Chain Relationship: A→B→C
Inference: A→C
Contrapositive: ̶C̶ → ̶B̶ → ̶A̶

Question 27

Explain the Unless Equation

Answer 27

If the words “unless,” “until,” “except,” and “without” modify a term within a conditional sentence, that term becomes the necessary condition, AND the other term is negated and becomes the sufficient condition.

Question 28

Unless Equation Example Problem: “Unless a person studies, he or she will not receive an A+.”

Answer 28

Unless modifies “a person studies” (Study), so it will become the necessary condition.

Therefore, “he or she will not receive an A+” will be negated and made the sufficient condition.

A+ → Study

Question 29

Multiple Sufficient and Necessary Conditions

Answer 29

On the LSAT there are going to be conditional statements where there are multiple sufficient conditions and multiple necessary conditions.

Question 30

Multiple Sufficient and Necessary Conditions: “And”

Answer 30

“And” indicates that two requirements in a conditional statement are BOTH necessary conditions.

Question 31

Multiple Sufficient and Necessary Conditions: “Or”

Answer 31

“Or” indicates that between two requirements in a conditional statement, only ONE is a necessary condition.

Question 32

Multiple Sufficient and Necessary Conditions Example: Diagram This –> “To be elected President of the United States, you must be at least 35 years of age and a natural born citizen of the United States.”

Answer 32

Pay attention to everything: “must be” modifies “at least 35 years of age and a natural born citizen of the United States,” so it is the necessary condition.

there are 2 requirements to be president indicated by the AND, which we will represent using “+.”
35
P → +
NBC

Question 33

Multiple Sufficient and Necessary Conditions Example: Diagram the Contrapositive of “To be elected President of the United States, you must be at least 35 years of age and a natural born citizen of the United States.”

Answer 33

Both being 35 AND being an NBC are requirements for presidential eligibility. If even ONE of these requirements are not met, then you can’t be President.

̶3̶5̶
or → ̶P̶
̶N̶B̶C̶

Question 34

When taking the contrapositive of a condition, the “________” becomes an “____.”

Answer 34

and; or

Question 35

When taking the contrapositive of a condition, the “_____” becomes an “_____.”

Answer 35

or; and

Question 36

Double Arrows

Answer 36

aka “Biconditional”
Double arrows represent when the variables in a conditional statement are both the necessary and sufficient condition.

Question 37

Indicator word/phrase for Double Arrows?

Answer 37

“if and only if”

“if but only if”

“when and only when”

Question 38

Double Arrows Example Problem: “Ann will attend if and only if Basil attends.”

Answer 38

Ann will attend if Basil attends: B → A
Ann will attend only if Basil attends: A → B

Biconditional relationship: A ↔ B
Contrapositive: ̶B̶ ↔ ̶A̶

Question 39

–THE READING COMPREHENSION SECTION–

Question 40

How many questions and how long do you have to complete the Reading Comprehension section?

Answer 40

You have 35 minutes to complete 26-28 questions.

You’ll be presented with 5 readings:
- 3 long passages
- 2 (comparatively) shorter passages

You’ll have exactly 8 min 45 sec to complete each passage and their corresponding questions.

Question 41

How long should it take you to read a given passage?

Answer 41

2 minutes.

(But since, we’re not all that experienced yet, we’ll practice 2.5-3 minutes).

Question 42

REMINDER: Reading too slow or too fast will put you at a major disadvantage. You will either be left with no time to answer the questions because you read to slow, or you will have skimmed over important information by reading to fast, forcing you to circle back and re-read.

Question 43

READ ______________ THAN WHAT’S IMMMEDIATELY COMFORTABLE, AND DO NOT _________________ PASSAGES.

Answer 43

FASTER; RE-READ

Question 44

Use only the ______________ in the ______________ to answer the questions to the reading passages.

Answer 44

information; passages

Question 45

! 5 Critical Elements You Must Track When Reading Passage !

Answer 45

1. VIEWpoints in the passage.
2. Structure of the passage.
3. Tone of the passage.
4. Attitude of each individual/group.
5. Main Point of the passage.

Question 46

These 5 critical elements are what we otherwise know as ______________, and tracking each of these elements through the passage will make answering questions a lot _____________.

Answer 46

VIEWSTAMP; easier

Question 47

Be sure to track __________________ (____________ and ______ _________________) through the passage. It will help you understand the flow of the passage. Many of these Reading Comprehension passages are designed to seem clustered and dense with alot of intertwined information from the author’s view and competing subject’s view. Tracking the view points allows you to “________________” this info and parse up the passage into the different viewpoints without getting ________________. (A possible helpful trick is to write “VP1,” “VP2,” “VP3” next to separate viewpoints)

Answer 47

viewpoints; competing; noncompeting; untangle / unravel; lost

Question 48

Common Text Based Indicators (things to look out for in the passages):

Initial Information / Closing Information

Answer 48

Many of the questions after the passage are related to the information at the very start and end of the passage.

Pay close attention to the first five and last five lines of the passage.

Question 49

Common Text Based Indicators (things to look out for in the passages):

Difficult Words, Phrases, or Concepts

Answer 49

Test takers just put these in here to confuse you.

Don’t waste time trying to define them.

Work to understand what these words mean in the greater context, and for the greater understanding, of the reading.

Question 50

Common Text Based Indicators (things to look out for in the passages):

Dates and Numbers

Answer 50

Date and numbers are useful for tracking chronology in passages.

(make sure that dates mentioned in a passage coincide with their respective event).

Question 51

Common Text Based Indicators (things to look out for in the passages):

Definitions

Answer 51

Take note of definitions that are given in the passage. It’s more likely than not that you will be questioned based on your understanding of the definitions.

Question 52

Common Text Based Indicators (things to look out for in the passages):

Enumerations / List

Answer 52

If there was a decision made in the passage, and there is a list of reasons as to why that decision was made (premises), be ready to answer questions based on these list of points.

“First…Second…Third”
“First…Second…In Addition…”
“First…Second…Third…Finally…”
“(1)…(2)…”
“Initially…And…Further…”
“One possibility is…another possibility…A final possibility…”

Question 53

If you are presented with a list, then write ___, ___, ___ next to wherever the items of the list are.

Answer 53

1; 2; 3

Question 54

Common Text Based Indicators (things to look out for in the passages):

Examples

Answer 54

Used to illustrate a hard-to-understand / abstract concept.

Question 55

If you see an example the author (etc.) is using to convey a point / definition, then write “____” next to it.

Answer 55

ex.

Question 56

Common Text Based Indicators (things to look out for in the passages):

Hidden References

Answer 56

If a topic is mentioned in one area of the passage, and ANOTHER area of the passage, be prepared to answer a question based on the topic.

You will have a question that refers to the topic’s first appearance in the passage, but oftentimes, the information needed to answer the question can be found where the topic is mentioned next.

Question 57

Common Text Based Indicators (things to look out for in the passages):

Text Questions

Answer 57

Track text questions, because they’re usually answered immediately after they’re presented (by the author), and it gives the reader a framework for where the author is going next in the passage.

Question 58

The Location Element

Answer 58

Where in the passage you should begin searching for the correct answer.

Question 59

Types of Location (3) in the Question Stem:

Answer 59

1) Specific Reference

2) Concept Reference

3) Global Reference

Question 60

Specific Reference

Answer 60

Question Stems that relate to specific word, phrase, Sentence, paragraph

“The author of the passage uses the phrase “________…” in the third paragraph primarily in order to…”

Question 61

Concept Reference

Answer 61

Question Stems that ask about ideas that were clearly enunciated, but not explicitly stated, in the text.

“Ideas in the passage that are not specifically identified in a phrase or paragraph.”

“The author’s discussion of _________________ primarily serves to…”

Question 62

Global Reference

Answer 62

Question Stems about the passage as a whole / lack specificity about any particular thing regarding the passage.

“Which of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage.”

Question 63

Just like the Logical Reasoning section, you need to ________________ your _______________. You will never feel comfortable picking an answer until you can find absolutely ______ reason to ________________ the answer.

Take a couple of ______________ before diving into your answer choices and, based your knowledge from the reading and question presented, think about what the answer should ___________ like. This way, you can more easily _______________ wrong answer choices.

Answer 63

prephrase; answers; no; dismiss; seconds; look; wrong