Lesson One: Logical Reasoning & Logic Games Flashcards
–Logical Reasoning–
–First Section–
How many questions must you answer in the logical reasoning section and how much time do you have per question?
35 minutes to answer 24-26 logical reasoning questions.
1 minute and 25 seconds to answer each question.
What does the Powerscore booklet have to say about superfluous knowledge?
Don’t bring in superfluous (outside) knowledge when answering the questions.
It’s not your job to make assumptions based on the excerpts you’re given.
All ______________ you need to _______________ the question(s) is in the ________________.
information; answer; text
What are the small excerpts called (in the logical reasoning portion of the LSAT)?
Stimulus
3 Parts to a Logical Reasoning Question
1) Stimulus
2) Question Stem
3) Answer Choices
Bear in mind, many of the _______________ choices could conceivably ________________ the question. It’s your job to find the ___________ _____________ choice.
answer; answer; BEST; answer
2 Types of Stimuli Questions
1) Arguments (Premises –> Conclusion)
2) Sets of Facts (w/ no Conclusion)
DO NOT waste time _______________ the _________ _____________ before the _______________.
reading; stem question; stimulus
Elements of Argumentation
Argument consists of Premises and a Conclusion
Conclusion
Main Point of the argument
Premises
Support for the Main Point of the Argument, such that if the premises are true, the conclusion MUST follow (has to be true).
Do we care about the truth of an argument?
In a sense, no. We don’t care about whether or not the conclusion posed by the argument is TRUE TO REAL LIFE.
We’re supposed accept the author’s words as true in the context of the argument.
Do we care about the validity of an argument?
Yes.
An argument is a valid argument iff. the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.
Look out for words that ____________ a _______________, and those that _____________ a _________________.
signal; premise; signal; conclusion
Words that signal premise
Because, given that, considering that, since…
Words that signal conclusion
Accordingly, therefore, hence, thus…
Remember, the ________________ and ________________ are in ________ particular ____________. You may very well face a situation in which the _____________ comes before the _______________.
premises; conclusion; no; order; conclusion; premises
The importance of certain ________________ is exemplified in the _________________ ______________ of the language within a given argument. You must be able to _______________ the ______________ _______________ of certain words in the stimuli.
language; Logical Force; identify; logical force
LOGICAL FORCE: Fact v. Opinion
Fact: Something that is indisputably true (e.g. “all animals ARE made up of the same kind of matter.”)
Opinion: Indicates a personally-held view (e.g. “censorship SHOULD be banned in all states.”)
LOGICAL FORCE: Likelihood (3)
1) Certainty: has to, must, will, (100%)
2) Probability: more likely than not, probably, generally, usually, would (>50%)
3) Possibility: might, may, could (>0%)
LOGICAL FORCE: Quantity (2)
- Range from “all” to “none.”
- Between these 2 extremes their may also be “some,” “most,” etc…
LOGICAL FORCE: Time (3)
1) Past: The student WAS on the dean’s list.
2) Present: The student IS on the dean’s list.
3) Future: The student WILL BE on the dean’s list.
It’s your job to _____________ the _______________, whether it’s Fact v. Opinion, Likelihood, Quantity, or Time.
E.g. An example about _____________ people cannot be used to make a determination about ______________ people.
E.g. An example of what ________________ happen cannot be used to determine what ___ the case.
TRACK; LANGUAGE; some; most; could; is
13 Types of Stem Questions (MUST MEMORIZE):
1) Must Be True
2) Main Point
3) Point at Issue / Point of Agreement
4) Assumption
5) Justify the Conclusion
6) Strengthen / Support
7) Resolve the Paradox
8) Weaken
9) Method of Reasoning
10) Flaw in the Reasoning
11) Parallel Reasoning
12) Evaluate
13) Cannot Be True
Each of these Stem Question types belong to a certain _____________.
family
Family #1: Prove
- Types: 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 11
- Used to prove the correct answer choice.
Stimulus
↓
Answer Choices
Family #4: Disprove
- Type: 13
- Used to disprove the correct answer choice.
Stimulus
⤈
Answer Choices
Family #2: Help
- Types: 4, 5, 6, 7
- used to help prove why stimulus follows from answer choice.
Stimulus
↑
Answer Choices
Family #3: Hurt
- Type: 8
- used to help prove why stimulus doesn’t follow from answer choice.
Stimulus
⤉
Answer Choices
Family #1 & Family #4
v.
Family #2 & Family #3
Families #1 and 4 show how the answer choices follow from the stimulus.
Families #2 and 3 show how the stimuli follow from the answer choices.
Prephrasing Answers
Quick speculation of what you believe the answer choices should look like given the stimuli.
How to Sort Through the Answer Choices:
- ______________ all ___ answer choices. (There will be questions that are SO carefully constructed to seem like the right answer, but is not the best response. These answer choices are usually placed right next to the right answer choice).
- Separate answer choices into ______________ and _____________.
- (Contenders:)
- (Losers:) - For all _____________, write an _________ next to them and ____________ them out.
- For all _____________, write a ______ next to them.
Read; 5; contenders; losers; losers; L; cross; contenders; C
Contenders: answers that follow from the stimulus.
Losers: answers that don’t follow from the stimulus.
Must Be True Question
- Family #1: Prove
- Question stem that asks you to choose the answer that directly follows from information in the stimulus.
- Can’t bring in new / outside information.
- Can’t select answers that could / are likely to be true.
- Pretty easy to identify: Must be True Questions stems are ALWAYS preceded by a stimulus that does not have a conclusion.
With ___________ ______ _____________ Questions, you must choose the answer choice that is _____________ supported by the stimuli.
Must Be True; BEST
What does the Fact Test tell us?
The correct answer choice can be most simply found by referring to the facts stated in the stimuli.
Must Be True: Incorrect Answers
Could Be True / Likely to Be True Answers
Answer choices that COULD conceivably be true, but doesn’t HAVE to be true.
Must Be True: Incorrect Answers
Exaggerated Answers
Answer choices that entail something much broader than what’s stated in the stimulus.
Must Be True: Incorrect Answers
“New” Information Answers
Answer choices that introduce information that’s not explicitly stated in the stimuli.
Must Be True: Incorrect Answers
The Shell Game
When the facts in an answer choice to a stimulus are very similar yet SLIGHTLY ALTERED to be incorrect.
Must Be True: Incorrect Answers
The Reverse Answer
An answer choice with all the elements in the stimuli, but rearranges these elements to reverse their relationship.
Must Be True: Incorrect Answers
Opposite Answer
Answer choice directly opposes the facts of the stimulus.
Main Point Question
- Family #1: Prove
- Question stem asks you to choose the answer choice that summarizes the author’s viewpoint.
- If the information in the answer is correct, but it doesn’t summarize the author’s viewpoint, the answer’s incorrect.
–LOGIC GAMES–
–Second Section–
How many questions must you answer in the logic games section and how much time do you have per question?
22-24 questions that need to be answered in 35 minutes.
Section of this exam is divided into 4 Games (w/ around ~5 questions per each game).
You have 8 minutes & 45 seconds per game.
3 Parts to a Logic Game
- Scenario
- Easy-to-understand activity w/ a relationship between a set of variables.
- Rules
- Outlines the relationship between variables.
- Questions
- test your understanding of
1) relationship between variables,
2) structure of the game,
3) relationship of variables as conditions change their relationship.
- test your understanding of
Make sure you ______________ the _____________ game scenario. This will help you…
1) ________________ what ___________ of game you’re dealing with.
2) How to __________ _____________ the game.
3) _____________ having to _____ - __________________.
read; entire; understand; kind; best; solve; avoid; re-diagram
You need to know _____________ ideal ____________ for a game so you don’t ____________ time during the exam wondering what _______________ to take to the Logic Game portion.
every; setup; waste; approach
Steps to Initial Setup of a Game: You need…
1) A __________ of _____________ and their ______________.
- E.g. 1) J, 2) K, 3) L …
2) Identification of any ______________ _________________ that aren’t affected by the rules of the game.
3) A ____________ of the ___________ sets.
4) A ____________ of each one of the rules.
5) A list of _____________.
1) list; variables; number
2) random variables
3) diagram; variable
4) diagram
5) inferences
Global Questions
Questions derived from the initial rules of the game.
These questions often follow the template of
- “Which one of the following is true?”
- “Who can finish first?”
Local Questions
Questions derived from new conditions presented in the questions (and initial rules).
These questions usually start with “If,” “when,” or “suppose.”
4 Characteristics that Each Logic Game Question Has
1) What cannot be true.
2) What could be true.
3) What is not necessarily true.
4) What must be true.
Pure Sequencing:
Ordering and Ranking of variables.
Guidelines to Setting up Pure Sequencing Game:
- Dash “⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻”
Represents relationship between variables.
E.g. F is faster than T: F⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻T
Guidelines to Setting up Pure Sequencing Game:
- Double Dash “═══════”
Represents relationship between variables where two variables are equal.
E.g. F is not faster than T: T ═══════ F
- Either T is faster than F.
OR
- T and F are equally fast.
Guidelines to Setting up Pure Sequencing Game:
- _____________ variables that are apart of _________ than one rule together.
E.g. “Jahru is not faster than Miles. Miles is slower than Noguchi.” (write out what this would look like, and underline the variable that connects the two rules).
Link; more
J, M, N
J is not faster than M: M ═══════ J
M is slower than N: N ⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻ M
= N ⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻⎻ M ═══════ J
Guidelines to Setting up Pure Sequencing Game:
- Always ____________ the ______________ of the game (test the ____________ on either side of the dash).
E.g. “Who is the fastest [one extreme] and who is the slowest [another extreme].”
test; limits; extremes
Guidelines to Setting up Pure Sequencing Game:
- Multibranch
╱
? ━━
╲
Represents variables that have an uncertain relationship (not governed by the same rules).
Guidelines to Setting up Pure Sequencing Game:
- Use dashes to represent __________________ _______________.
E.g.
P is faster than T and slower than S.
N is slower than T.
J is not faster than M.
M is slower than N.
(represent the ordering of this [answer is on the other side]).
sequential ordering
S ━━ P ━━ T
T ━━ N
M ═══ J
N ━━ M
S ━━ P ━━ T ━━ N ━━ M ═══ J
Guidelines to Setting up Pure Sequencing Game:
- Watch for rules that create ________________ _____________ possibilities.
E.g. “B is faster than D, or else C is faster than D, but not both.” (write out both possibilities)
Keep in mind, on the exam, if you’re given a question like this, you have to write out _____________ possibilities separately.
mutually exclusive;
B ━━ D ━━ C
OR
C ━━ D ━━ B;
BOTH
Guidelines to Setting up Pure Sequencing Game:
- Track the appearance of ______________ _______________ on variables (made by the rules), by ____________ the variable.
E.g.
V, W, Z are all faster than T.
W cannot be the fastest (<– there’s an outer restriction), and there are no ties.
V
╲
ⓦ ━━ T
╱
Z
outer restrictions; circling
Guidelines to Setting up Pure Sequencing Game:
- Don’t make ________________ about the relationship between _______________ based on ______________ ______________ between the variables.
Explain this rule using the below Sequencing Game:
R ━━ V
╲
T
╱
W
assumptions; variables; physical proximity
From the sequencing game below, physically, yes, it appears as though R is ahead of W. But remember, they’re on separate branches. We can’t infer a relationship between the two variables. R could be faster than W. W could be faster than R. Or, R and W could be equally fast. These same rules apply to V and W.
