Lecture exam Flashcards
Define anatomy and physiology
Anatomy is the study of internal and external body structures and their physical relationship among other body parts.
Physiology is the study of the functions, or workings, of the human body.
Understand the relationship between anatomy & physiology (form and function)
Anatomy clarifies the structure of the human body while physiology deals with the functioning of the human body.
Understand the levels of biological organization
Atom-molecule-cell-tissue-organ-organ system-organism
Identify all 11 organ systems
Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, female/male reproductive
major components and functions of the integumentary system
Organs-skin, hair, sweat glands, nails.
Function-protects against environmental hazards; helps regulate body temperature; provides sensory information
major components and functions of the skeletal system
Organs-bones, cartilage, associated ligaments, bone marrow
Function-provides support and protection for other tissues; stores calcium and other minerals; forms blood cells
major components and functions of the muscular system
Organs-Skeletal muscles and associated tendons
Function-provides movement; provides protection and support for other tissues; generates heat that maintains body temperature
major components and functions of the nervous system
Organs-brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs
Function-directs immediate responses to stimuli; coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems; provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions
major components and functions of the endocrine system
Organs-pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads, endocrine tissues in other systems
Function-directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems; adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body; controls many structural and functional changes during development
major components and functions of the cardiovascular system
Organs-heart, blood, blood vessels
Functions-Distributes blood cells, water, and disolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide; distributes heat and assists in control of body timperature
major components and functions of the lymphatic system
Organs-spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils
Functions-defends against infection and disease; returns tissue fliuds to the bloodstream
major components and functions of the respiratory system
Organs-nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, brochi, lungs, alveoli
Functions-Delivers air to alveoli; provides oxygen to bloodstream; removes carbon dioxide from blood stream; produces sounds for communication
major components and functions digestive system
Organs-teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
Functions-processes and digests food; absorbs and conserves water; absorbs nutrients; stores energy reserves
major components and functions of the urinary system
Organs-kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Functions-excretes waste production
Functions-excretes waste products from the blood; controls water balance by regulating volume of urine prior to voluntary elimination; regulates blood ion concentrations and pH
major components and functions of the female reproductive system
Organs-ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands
Functions-produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones; supports developing embryo from conception to delivery; provides milk to nourish newborn infant; sexual intercourse
major components and functions of the male reproductive system
Organs-testes,epididymids, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate glands, penis, scrotum
Function-produces male sex cells (sperm), seminal fliuds, and hormones; sexual intercourse.
Define homeostasis and describe its importance to living organisms
Refers to existence of a stable internal environment.
Describe how negative feedback works, give an example
Negative feedback is a way of counteracting a change. In this process, an effector activated by the control center opposes or negates, the original stimulus. So that the negative feedback tends to minimize change.
Example - thermoregulation or blood sugar
Describe how positive feedback works, give an example
Positive feedback tends to enhance or increase the change or stimulus that triggered it. The initial stimulus produces a response that amplifies or enhances the original change in conditions, rather than opposing it.
Example - child birth or a cut
Know the anatomical landmarks of superficial anatomy
Know the anatomical regions and quadrants and the organs/structures that can be found in each.
Use directional terms to describe the location of various organs or structures
Identify the major body cavities and the organs and structures found in them
Describe the three major body sections
Frontal plane - separates the front from the back
Mid/Sagittal plane - divides the body in left and right, and if it is directly in the middle it is Midsagittal
Transverse plane - separates the body from top (superior) and bottom (inferior)
Identify the four major types of tissues
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
describe their general roles of Epithelial tissue
-covers exposed surfaces
-lines internal passageways and chambers
-produces glandular secretions
describe their general roles of Connective tissue
-fills internal spaces
-provides structural support
-stores energy
describe their general roles of Muscle tissue
-contracts to produce movement
describe their general roles of Nervous tissue
-propagates electrical impulses
-carries information
Describe the important characteristics of epithelial tissue
-Polarity - has an exposed surface and a base.
-Cellularity - bound closely together by interconnections (cell junctions). nothing extra….just all cells
-Attachment - they are bound to a basement membrane, which adheres to the basal surface and to the underlaying tissues to establish the cell’s border and resist stretching
-Avascularity - lack blood vessels. they get nutrients by diffusion or absorption across exposed or attached surface
Describe the functions of epithelial organ
-Provide physical protection
-Control permeability
-Provide sensation
-Produce specialized secretions
the four types of intercellular connections
They are all cell junctions which are:
-Gap junctions
-Tight junctions
-Hemidesmosomes (Desmosomes)
-Spot desmosomes
Describe Hemidesmosomes and where they would be located in epithelial tissue
An anchor holding the cells to the basement layer
Locations bottom of the cells with a half protein disc anchoring into the basement membrane
Describe Gap junctions and where they would be located in epithelial tissue
They allow easy diffusion for neighboring cells to share nutrients and such
They are located between neighboring cells
Describe Tight junctions and where they would be located in epithelial tissue
They interlock neighboring cell membranes to prevent the diffusion of fluids and solutes between the cells
located on the apical surface of the cell joining the neighboring cells
Describe Spot desmosomes and where they would be located in epithelial tissue
An anchor holding the cells to each other
located between the cells hooked to the cytoskeleton
Discuss the types epithelial cells
-Simple Squamous Epi
-Stratified Squamous Epi
-Simple cuboidal Epi
-Stratified Cuboidal Epi
-Transitional Epi
-Simple Columnar
-Stratified Columnar
-Pseudostratified ciliated columnar Epi
Discuss functions, and general locations of simple squamous epithelial cells
Functions - Reduces friction; controls vessel permeability; performs absorption and secretion
Location - Mesothelia lining plueral, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities; endothelia lining heart and blood vessels; portions of kidney tubules; inner lining of cornea; alveoli of lungs
Discuss functions, and general locations of stratified squamous epithelial cells
Functions - Provides physical protection against abrasion pathogens, and chemical attack
Location - surface of skin; lining of mouth, throat, esophagus, rectum, anus, and vagina
Discuss functions, and general locations of simple cuboidal epithelial cells
Functions - limited protection, secretion, absorption
Locations - glands; ducts; portions of kidney tubules; thyroid gland
Discuss functions, and general locations of stratified cuboidal epithelial cells
Functions - protection, secretion, absorption
Locations - lining of some ducts (rare)
Discuss functions, and general locations of transitional epithelial cells
Functions - permits repeated cycles of stretching without damage
Locations - urinary bladder; renal pelvis; urters
Discuss functions, and general locations of simple columnar epithelial cells
Functions - protection, secretion, absorption
Locations - lining of stomach, intestine, gallbladder, uterine tubes and collecting ducts of kidneys
Discuss functions, and general locations of stratified columnar epithelial cells
Function - protection
Locations - small areas of the pharynx, epiglottis, anus, mammary glands, salivary gland ducts, and urethra
Discuss functions, and general locations of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells
Functions - protection, secretion, move mucus with cilia
Locations - lining of nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi; portions of male reproductive tract
Describe the relationship between form and function for each type of epithelium
Function and form of epithelium is that the form matches the function. example is that if there needs to be quick diffusion of something the thickness needs to be as small as possible. where if protection is needed there needs to be an army of cells to protect what is underneath.
Compare and contrast endocrine and exocrine glands
They are specialized for secretion and are made up of glandular epithelia.
However, Exocrine gland secretes their product on a surface. where the Endocrine gland secretes their product in the blood.
Three modes of secretion are….
(apocrine, merocrine, holocrine)
Describe the three modes of secretion (apocrine, merocrine, holocrine)
-Apocrine: secretory vesicles goes toward the apical surface then the whole top of the cell pinches off and is released with all the vesicles
-Merocrine: releases from the cell by secretory vesicles through exocytosis
-Holocrine: the superficial cells becomes packed with ssecretory vesicles and then bursts, releasing the secretion, but killing the cell.
Describe the various types of gland structure
-Simple: has only one duct
-Compound: has more than one duct
and
-Tubular: shape; simple, simple coiled, branched, compound
- Alveolar: shape; simple, branched, compound
-Tubulo-Alveolar: shape; only compound
Describe the cells and fibers found in connective tissue proper
Mast cells- have granules of histamine, heparin, and other prostaglandin and are for inflammatory response
Fibroblast - creates the fibers
Macrophages - free and fixed; clean up crew of dead cells or cell debris
Mesenchymal cell - stem cells of connective tissue and can divide to create any other specialized cell
Lymphocytes/Plasma cells - part of immune system
Melanocytes - make melanin
Adipocytes - fat tissue
Elastic fibers - stretchy
Collagen fibers - thick and strong
Reticular fibers - branched and supportive
Ground substance - extracellular matrix
name the types of connective tissue
Areolar CT
Adipose CT
Reticular CT
Dense regular CT
Dense Irregular CT
Blood
Hyaline cartilage
Elastic cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Bone
Describe the structure, function, and general location of the Areolar CT
Structure - a hole bunch of cells and fibers
Function - support and padding
General Locations - found just under epithelium, components of basement membrane, and wrapped around organs
Describe the structure, function, and general location of the Adipose CT
Structure - just adipose cells; fluid ground fluid
Function - padding and cushions shocks, insulates and stores energy
General Locations - under skin, breast, buttocks
Describe the structure, function, and general location of the Reticular CT
Structure - reticular tissue fibers, with the cells of the organ
Function - gives shape and structure
General Locations - 3D organs (liver, spleen)
Describe the structure, function, and general location of the Dense regular CT
Structure - collegian fibers running in one direction
Function - strength which is in the orientation of the collegian fibers
General Locations - tendons and ligaments
Describe the structure, function, and general location of the Dense Irregular CT
Structure - collegian fibers going in all different directions
Function - strength and elasticity in all directions
General Locations - dermis
Describe the structure, function, and general location of the Blood
Structure - Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets, and fibrinogen
Function - transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and other substances
General Locations - in the blood vessels
Describe the structure, function, and general location of the Hyaline cartilage
Structure - lacuna, pockets, collagen fibers and ground substance
Function - supports and reinforces; serves as resilient cushion; resists compressive stress
General Locations - nose, costal, end of long bones
Describe the structure, function, and general location of the Elastic cartilage
Structure - lacuna, pockets, elastic fibers
Function - flexibility
General Locations - supports the external ear, epiglottis
Describe the structure, function, and general location of the Fibrocartilage
Structure - collagen fibers, lacunas, pockets,
Function - shock absorber
General Locations - vertebral discs, discs in the knees
Describe the structure, function, and general location of the bone CT
Structure - collagen fibers, matrix is a crystal salt (1/3 collagen & 2/3 crystal), lacuna, osteocytes, canuliculi
Function - structure
General Locations - bones
List the formed elements found in blood
red blood cells, white blood cell, platelets, fibrinogen
Understand how cartilage grows interstitially and appositionally
Interstitially - enlarges the cartilage from within; chondrocytes divide within the cartilage matrix and the daughter cells produce additional matrix; begins in embryonic development
Appositionally - gradually increases the size of the cartilage by adding to its outer surface; perichondrium divides and become chondroblasts, making cartilage matrix; covers fibroblasts and the fibroblasts becomes a chondrocytes if covered in the cartilage matrix
Explain how epithelial and connective tissues combine to form 4 types of membranes.
It is both connective tissue and epithelium tissue that makes up each of these membranes. They work together to cover a surface
Describe the function and general location of the 4 major membrane types
Mucous membrane - found lining membranes to protect from the outside world (intestines)
Serous membrane - Found lining the closed cavities; pericardial membrane
Cutaneous membrane - Dry membrane (Epithelium)
Synovial membrane - lines the movable joints (i.e. knee and wrist joints)
Describe how connective tissue establishes the framework of the body
connective tissue lines all other tissue and provides needed cells for other tissue to work, also some provide structure so the tissue doesn’t collapse on itself.
Describe the three types of muscle tissue and the special structural features of each type.
Skeletal - multi nuclei long cell; fibrous; striated and connected to bone or skin; moves the bone; voluntary
Smooth - no striation; single nucleus, spindle like cells; found in the walls of the hollow organs; involuntary
Cardiac - striated, branched, single nucleus cells; involuntary; automaticity (contract on their own); only in the walls of the heart
Discuss the basic structure and role of neural tissue
Structure - neurons that is multi branched cells; neuroglia (supporting or back up cells)
Role - conduct electoral impulses
Describe the inflammation and regeneration response by tissues.
Injury–>Exposed to pathogens and toxins–>Mast cells activated–>Inflammation (redness, swelling, pain, warmth)–>Inflammation subsides–>Regeneration (mast cells are turned off)
List the components of the Integumentary System, and describe their physical relationship to each other and to the subcutaneous layer
The cutaneous membrane which includes the skin (epidermis and dermis), nails, hair and glands. They work together with the subcutaneous layer to protect the rest of the systems from the outside world.
Specify the general functions of the Integumentary System
protects the rest of the systems from the outside world.
Describe the main structural features of the epidermis, and explain the functional significance of each
Stratum basale - to germinate and create new cells
Stratum spinosum - living; karatinocytes bound together by desmosomes.
Stratum granulosum - the cells are starting to die; dehydrating; and full of granules; dark staining band
Stratum lucidum - only in thick skin; clear layer; cells have lost all their granules
Stratum corneum - most superficial layer; dead keratinized cells
Explain what accounts for individual differences in skin color
we all have the same amount of melanocytes. the amount of melanosomes that the melanocytes make makes the color of the skin. the darker the skin the more melanosomes are made, where the fairer the skin the less amount of melanosomes are made.
Describe the effects of ultraviolet radiation on the skin, and discuss the role of melanocytes in exposure to sunlight.
They make a little umbrella over the nucleus to protect it from UV radiation. more sun exposure the higher the melanosomes are pushed to the surface, you produce more melanin as well.
Describe the interaction between sunlight, vitamin D3 production, and bone health.
Stratum spinosum is where it is made
sunlight on the Steroid compound–>cholecalciferol–>liver (processes it to intermediary product)–>kidney (calcitriol)–>stimulation of calcium and phosphate ion absorption
Describe the structure and functions of the dermis
Structure - Papillary layer, reticular layer,
Function - Papillary: Areolar tissue, vascular, full of all cells needed, papillary plexus (network of capillaries); Reticular: cutaneous plexus (larger vessels), dense irregular connective tissue
Describe the structure and function of the subcutaneous layer
vascular, and full of adipose tissue
Describe the structure of hair and how it is produced
Structure: three layers thick (medula (soft karatin), cortex (hard caratin), cuticle (thin scaly layers)), contains a shaft and root, and it grows from the hair bulb.
Produced: vascular in the hair bulb, papilla (life source), hair matrix (replication to make hair)
Discuss the various kinds of glands in the skin and the secretions of each
Sudoriferous glands (sweat) - Merocrine (eccrine) gland and Apocrine gland; Eccrine is the temperature regulating sweat gland; Apocrine is also associated with hair (armpits, groin, and nipples), more thick and milky that bacteria likes to eat and causes BO
Sebaceous glands (oil) - on the hair follicles; holocrine secretion; sebaceous follicle is directly to the skin with no hair; zits are associated with blocked sebaceous glands
Explain how the eccrine sweat glands play a major role in regulating body temperature
Eccrine is the temperature regulating sweat gland but releasing ions and water to the surface of the skin, as the water evaporates the body cools down.
Describe the anatomical structure of nails, and explain how they are formed
Explain how the skin responds to injury and repairs itself
Inflammation phase - bleeding and mast cells in the region trigger an inflammatory response
Migration phase - scab forms and cells of the stratum basale are migrating along the edges of the wound. phagocytic cells remove debris; clotting around the edges to partially isolate the region
Proliferation phase - scab in undermined by epidermal cells migrating over the collagen fiber meshwork produced by fibroblast proliferation and activity; the fibrin clot is dissolving
Scarring phase - scab has been shed; the epidermis is complete; shallow depression on injury side, but fibroblasts continue to create scar tissue that gradually elevate the overlying epidermis
Describe the three types of burns
1st degree - partial thickness burn; only burns the epidermis
2nd degree - partial thickness burn; dermis is partially intact
3rd degree - full thickness burn; no hair, glands, or nerves left
Describe the three main types of skin cancer.
Basal cell carcinoma - most common; caused by exposure to UV light; survival rate is 95%
Squamous cell carcinoma - carotin cells of the stratum spinosum
Malignant carcinoma - Melanocytes are cancer; darker because they are the cells that make melanin; before malignant survival rate is 99%; after malignant survival rate is 14%
know the ABCDE’s of identification cancer
Asymmetry, Border, Color, Diameter, Evolution
