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U1 Behavioural Neurological Psychology 211 > Lecture 4 > Flashcards

Lecture 4 Flashcards

Chapter 2c

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1
Q

The Action Potential in Five Proteins are:

A

You know the 2 proteins that set up the resting membrane potential:

Sodium-Potassium transporter (requires ATP; concentrates sodium and potassium outside and inside the cell, respectively)

Leak potassium channels (always open; sets up the resting membrane potential)

The action potential involves 3 other proteins: voltage-gated ion channels

Voltage-gated sodium channel (to initiate and propagate the action potential)

Voltage-gated potassium channel (to restore the resting membrane potential)

Voltage-gated calcium channel (located at the end of the axon, the axon terminal, and cause the release of neurotransmitter-containing vesicles)

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2
Q

We know the DNA letters (the exact string of nucleic acids) do what

A

encode these proteins in numerous species

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3
Q

A portion of the DNA that encodes the voltage-gated potassium channel: what letters encode it

A

AGA

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4
Q

AGA encodes what

A

These 3 letters encode the amino acid arginine

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5
Q

In genetics, apromoteris what

A

a region of DNA that initiates transcription of a particulargene. They indicate what kind of cells should read the gene and when.
Promotersare typically located just before the gene.

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6
Q

what is A synapse

A

is a junction between the axon terminal of the sending neuron and a portion of the cell membrane of the receiving neuron

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7
Q

Communication generally proceeds in one direction only, what is it (synaptic communication)

A

FROM the axon terminal TO the membrane of the other cell.

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8
Q

A synapse is a junction between the axon terminal of the sending neuron and a portion of the cell membrane of the receiving neuron.

Communication generally proceeds in one direction only: FROM the axon terminal TO the membrane of the other cell.

This communication across the synapse is achieved how

A

by the release of a chemical from an axon terminal

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9
Q

A synapse is a junction between the axon terminal of the sending neuron and a portion of the cell membrane of the receiving neuron.

Communication generally proceeds in one direction only: FROM the axon terminal TO the membrane of the other cell.

This communication across the synapse is achieved by the release of a chemical from an axon terminal. This chemical is called a what

A

neurotransmitter

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10
Q

what kind of effect does a neurotransmitter have

A

can have a simple excitatory or inhibitory effect or a complex modulatory effect on the receiving neuron

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11
Q

what are the main parts of the synapse

A

Presynaptic membrane
Synaptic vesicles

Synaptic cleft
Postsynaptic membrane

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12
Q

what is the Presynaptic membrane

A

the membrane of the terminal button (the sending cell). This is where neurotransmitter is released from.

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13
Q

what is the Synaptic vesicles

A

contain molecules of neurotransmitter. They attach to the presynaptic membrane and release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

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14
Q

what is the Synaptic cleft

A

is the space between the pre- and postsynaptic membranes. It is filled with an extracellular fluid.

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15
Q

what is the Postsynaptic membrane

A

is the membrane of the receiving cell that is opposite the axon terminal

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16
Q

what is Electron microscopy

A

allows us to see small anatomical structures (e.g. synaptic vesicles and details of cell organelles) using a special electron microscope.

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17
Q

Neurotransmitters are what kind of molecules

A

signaling

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18
Q

Signaling molecules that bind to protein receptors are called what

A

ligands

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19
Q

Most cell signaling and cell communication occurs through what kind of interactions

A

ligand-receptor interactions.

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20
Q

Receptors can either be located where

A

on the cell membrane (surface receptors) or somewhere inside the cell (intracellular receptors).

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21
Q

Neurotransmitter receptors are generally what kind of receptors

A

surface receptors

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22
Q

Postsynaptic receptors are located where

A

on the postsynaptic membrane

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23
Q

Presynaptic receptors are located where

A

on the presynaptic membrane

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24
Q

Extrasynaptic receptors are located where

A

somewhere outside of the synapse.

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25
Q

Neurotransmitter receptors can also be classified as what

A

ionotropic receptors or metabotropic receptors

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26
Q

Neurotransmitter receptors can also be classified as ionotropic receptors what are these

A

ion channels

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27
Q

Neurotransmitter receptors can also be classified as metabotropic receptors what are these

A

protein receptors that can open ion channels through an intracellular signaling cascade

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28
Q

what are the 4 main Communication Between Neurons

A

Ligand

Binding site

Postsynaptic Receptor

Ligand-gated ion channel

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29
Q

what do Ligand do

A

General term for a signaling molecule (chemical) that binds to the binding site of a receptor. Neurotransmitters are ligands.

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30
Q

what is the Binding site

A

Location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds

31
Q

what is Postsynaptic Receptor

A

Receptor protein in postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter

32
Q

what are Ligand-gated ion channel

A

A receptor that is an ion channel. Also known as an ionotropic receptor. The ion channel opens when the ligand (e.g., the neurotransmitter) binds to it.

33
Q

Neurotransmitter signaling in the synapse is kept brief by two mechanisms which are…

A

reuptake and enzymatic deactivation

34
Q

what is Reuptake

A

Reentry of a neurotransmitter just liberated by a terminal button back through its membrane, thus terminating postsynaptic potential

35
Q

what is Enzymatic deactivation

A

Destruction of a neurotransmitter by enzyme after its release
For example, destruction of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase

36
Q

what is Postsynaptic potential

A

Alterations in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron, produced by neurotransmitter release into the synapse and receptor activation.

37
Q

Postsynaptic potentials can either be …

A

excitatory (often due to an influx of positive sodium ions)
or
inhibitory (often due to an influx of negative chloride ions).

38
Q

what is Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

A

Excitatory depolarization of postsynaptic membrane caused by neurotransmitter binding to a postsynaptic receptor protein

39
Q

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) are mediated how

A

by receptor proteins that open ion channels permeable to sodium. (Making the membrane more permeable to sodium will push the membrane potential towards +40 mV.)

40
Q

what is Neural integration

A

If only a couple EPSPs occur at one time, the influx of sodium ions will likely not cause an action potential.

The depolarizing effect of the incoming sodium ions will be counteracted by an increase in the outflow of potassium ions through the leak channels.

Really anytime positive sodium ions come in, the likelihood that positive potassium ions will leave increases.

Thus to trigger an action potential, many EPSPs have to occur at nearly the same time. Sodium ions have to come in at a faster rate that potassium ions can leave in order to depolarize the membrane to the threshold of activation. And, this depolarization has to reach the beginning of the axon (the axon hillock) where voltage-gated sodium channels are congregated and can trigger an action potential.

41
Q

what is Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

A

Inhibitory hyperpolarization of postsynaptic caused by neurotransmitter binding to a postsynaptic receptor protein.

42
Q

IPSPs are mediated how

A

by receptor proteins that open ion channels permeable to chloride. (Making the membrane more permeable to chloride will push the membrane potential towards -80 mV.)

43
Q

The interaction of the excitatory and inhibitory synapses on a particular neuron is called what

A

neural integration

44
Q

When EPSPs and IPSPs occur at the same time what happens

A

the influx of negatively charged chloride ions diminish the impact of the positively charged sodium ions. IPSPs decrease the likelihood that the cell will fire.

45
Q

what are the 3 main points of Communication Between Neurons:Postsynaptic Potentials

A

Postsynaptic potentials can be either depolarizing (excitatory) or hyperpolarizing (inhibitory)

What determines the direction of the postsynaptic potential (EPSP vs IPSP) is not neurotransmitter, but rather the receptor

Some serotonin receptors cause EPSPs and others cause IPSPs. It is up to the postsynaptic cell to determine how it wants to respond the signaling molecule.

46
Q

Postsynaptic potentials can be what

A

either depolarizing (excitatory) or hyperpolarizing (inhibitory)

47
Q

What determines the direction of the postsynaptic potential (EPSP vs IPSP) is not neurotransmitter but…

A

rather the receptor

48
Q

Some serotonin receptors cause EPSPs and others cause IPSPs what determines how it wants to respond

A

It is up to the postsynaptic cell to determine how it wants to respond the signaling molecule.

49
Q

what is an Ionotropic Receptor

and what does it do

A

A neurotransmitter receptor that is an ion channel. The properties of the pore of the ion channel (the hole) will determine if it causes EPSPs or IPSPs (i.e., if it lets sodium or chloride ions through).

50
Q

what is Metabotropic receptor

and what does it do

A

Neurotransmitter receptor that triggers an intracellular signaling cascade that often involves g proteins. The signaling cascade can lead to ion channel opening or other cellular effects.

51
Q

what is G protein-gated ion channel

and what does it do

A

G proteins are a family of intracellular proteins that are involved in intracellular signaling cascades. Some ion channels are gated by g proteins.

52
Q

regarding Metabotropic Receptors

G-protein signaling cascades can affect multiple downstream processes, including;

A

opening g protein-gated ion channels
changes in gene transcription
secretion of substances from the cell
really anything the cell wants.

53
Q

When the dendrites of a sensory neuron are stimulated by a noxious stimulus (such as contact with a hot object), what happens

A

it sends messages down the axon to terminal buttons located in spinal cord.

The sensory neuron will activate an interneuron, which in turn will active a motor neuron and cause a withdrawal reflex

54
Q

When the dendrites of a sensory neuron are stimulated by a noxious stimulus (such as contact with a hot object), it sends messages down the axon to terminal buttons located in spinal cord.

The sensory neuron will activate an interneuron, which in turn will active a motor neuron and cause a withdrawal reflex

however what might also happen

A

However, a neuron deep in the brain may have other plans. For example, a cortical neuron could send an action potential down the spinal cord to excite an inhibitory interneuron, which is a neuron that generally causes IPSCs in downstream neurons.

This interneuron would induce IPSCs in the motor neuron and block (counteract) the withdrawal reflex

This circuit provides an example of a contest between two competing tendencies: to drop the casserole and to hold onto it

55
Q

An inhibitory neuron is a neuron that does what

A

reliably causes IPSCs in downstream neurons (i.e., it reduces the spiking activity of downstream neurons).

56
Q

An inhibitory neuron is a neuron that reliably causes IPSCs in downstream neurons (i.e., it reduces the spiking activity of downstream neurons).

Keep in mind that the net result of inhibitory neuron activity may …

A

not be to inhibit an animal’s behaviour.

57
Q

Sometimes, inhibitory neuron activity can cause a movement. This is often the case if…

A

the inhibitory neuron has synaptic connections on other inhibitory neurons. Inhibition of inhibitory neurons can make a behaviour more likely to occur.

58
Q

An inhibitory neuron is a neuron that reliably causes IPSCs in downstream neurons (i.e., it reduces the spiking activity of downstream neurons).

Keep in mind that the net result of inhibitory neuron activity may not be to inhibit an animal’s behaviour.

Sometimes, inhibitory neuron activity can cause a movement. This is often the case if the inhibitory neuron has synaptic connections on other inhibitory neurons. Inhibition of inhibitory neurons can make a behaviour more likely to occur.

what is The big picture

A

For every neuron trying to change behaviour in one way, there are probably other neurons trying to do the opposite. Both groups of neurons are often regulated by inhibitory neurons. And in turn the inhibitory neurons themselves may be regulated by other inhibitory neurons. It is not uncommon to find long chains of inhibitory neurons in a row, which can make it really hard to determine which ones are trying to cause or prevent a behaviour. The take home point is that:

Neural excitation is not the same thing as behavioural excitation.
Neural inhibition is not the same thing as behavioural inhibition.

59
Q

Synapses can form between axon terminals and …

A

dendrites (dendritic shafts)
dendritic spines
the soma (cell body)
other axon terminals

60
Q

what are the 2 Axoaxonic Synapses

A

Presynaptic inhibition
and
Presynaptic facilitation

61
Q

what is Presynaptic facilitation

A

The purpose of an axoaxonic synapse can be to increases the amount of neurotransmitter released by the second neuron when it has an action potential. It depolarizes the axon terminal of that neuron, so when an action potential comes more calcium channels open.

62
Q

what is Presynaptic inhibition

A

The purpose of an axoaxonic synapse can be to reduce the amount of neurotransmitter released by the second neuron when it has an action potential. It hyperpolarizes the axon terminal of that neuron so its calcium channels may not open at all or for very long when an action potential arrives.

63
Q

what is an Autoreceptor

A

Receptor located on the presynaptic neuron, the neuron that is releasing the neuro-transmitter

64
Q

Autoreceptors are gated by what

A

the neurotransmitter that the cell releases

65
Q

Autoreceptors are generally metabotropic and inhibitory. They are a main source of ….

A

presynaptic inhibition

66
Q

where are Post-synaptic

receptors located

A

Post-synaptic

receptor: receptor located on the receiving neuron, the one that is not releasing the neurotransmitter

67
Q

Cells are sensitive to certain molecules because why

A

of what they represent, the information they convey. These are called signaling molecules and they trigger a cellular response (beyond digestion).

68
Q

Most signaling molecules fit into two broad categories which are

A 
Amino acids (including proteins and amino acid derivatives)
Lipids (including fats and steroids)
69
Q

When signaling molecules are released into the circulatory system (the bloodstream) they are called what

A

hormones

70
Q

When signaling molecules are released into the circulatory system (the bloodstream) they are called hormones. The same substance released in the brain would be called what

A

a neurotransmitter

71
Q

what are the The Principal Neurotransmitters

A

Conventional neurotransmitters
Neuropeptides
Lipid-based signaling molecules

72
Q

what are Conventional neurotransmitters

A

mostly amino acid derivatives
The main players: glutamate, GABA, dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, acetylcholine
are synthesized locally in axon terminals
are usually secreted from small synaptic vesicles (SSVs) that dock very close to the site of Ca2+entry in the axon terminal
generally activate ionotropic and metabotropic receptors
are typically recaptured after secretion
usually bind receptors directly across the synapse. Even when neurotransmitters diffuse, they only act over distances of tens to hundreds of micrometers

73
Q

what are Neuropeptides

A

short string of amino acids (i.e., a protein formed with only ~ 10-30 amino acids)
Examples from the list of >70: oxytocin, vasopressin, enkephalin, prolactin, NPY, ghrelin, CRH
are synthesized in the cell soma, transported down the axon while undergoing additional processing, and released just once.
are usually secreted from large dense core vesicles (LDCV) that dock a ways back from the site of Ca2+entry in the axon terminal
only activate metabotropic receptors (neuropeptides do not activate ionotropic receptors)
no synaptic re-use occurs of either the neuropeptides or their immediate precursors.
may diffuse long distances and exert action at a distance (non-synaptic communication)

74
Q

what are Lipid-based signaling molecules

A

(e.g., the cannabinoids anandamide and arachidonoylglycerol)
are synthesized and released on demand (as needed)
are secreted in an unknown, non-vesicular manner typically from postsynaptic neurons
activate metabotropic receptors typically located on the presynaptic axon terminal

U1 Behavioural Neurological Psychology 211 (22 decks)

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