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U1 Behavioural Neurological Psychology 211 > lecture 21 > Flashcards

lecture 21 Flashcards

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1
Q

Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that is characterized by what

A

ial withdrawal, disorganized thinking, abnormal speech, and an inability to understand reality

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2
Q

Schizophrenia impacts how many people

A

It afflicts approximately 1% of world’s population. Symptoms typically come on gradually, begin in young adulthood, and in many cases never resolve (although 20% of people eventually do quite well). About 30-50% of people with schizophrenia do not believe they have an illness or comply with their recommended treatment

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3
Q

Schizophrenia literally means what

A

􏰀split mind,􏰁 but it does not imply a split personality or multiple personality.

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4
Q

The symptoms of schizophrenia are often grouped into 3 categories:

A

Negative:
Cognitive:
Positive:

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5
Q

what are negative symptoms of Schizophrenia

A

the absence of behaviours - social withdrawal, reduced emotional expression, poverty of speech, and reduced motivation

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6
Q

what are cognitive symptoms of Schizophrenia

A

disorganized and irrational thinking, deficits in learning and memory, poor abstract thinking, and poor problem solving

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7
Q

what are positive symptoms of Schizophrenia

A

the presence of delusions (typically delusions of persecution, grandeur, or control - beliefs that contradict reality) and hallucinations (perception of stimuli that are not actually present)

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8
Q

what symptoms emerge first (Schizophrenia)

A

Negative symptoms typically emerge first, followed by cognitive symptoms and, years later, by positive symptoms

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9
Q

Many patients with schizophrenia also exhibit neurological symptoms, such as what

A

poor control of eye movements and unusual facial expressions, and the illness is associated with subtle differences in
brain structure.

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10
Q

The causes of schizophrenia include what

A

environmental and genetic factors

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11
Q

Estimates of the heritability of schizophrenia is….

A

around 80%. Heritability measures the fraction of phenotype variability that can be attributed to genetic variation.

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12
Q

Risk of developing schizophrenia if…

A

your sibling has it is ~8%
– one of your parents has it is ~13%
– both of you parents have it (or an identical twin has it) is ~50%

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13
Q

about what % of cases are attributed to rare gene copy number variations (schizophrenia)

A

Around 5% of cases are attributed to rare gene copy number variations (duplicated or missing genes), which are frequently comorbid with autism and intellectual disabilities

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14
Q

The causes of schizophrenia include environmental and genetic factors.
Environmental factors:

A 
mother’s nutrition during pregnancy
– mother’s stress during pregnancy
– certain infections (particularly during pregnancy) – birth month
– being raised in a city
– childhood trauma
– social isolation
– perinatal hypoxia / brain damage
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15
Q

Some evidence suggests that the concordance rate for schizophrenia is much higher for monochorionic twins and than in dichorionic twins, which suggests what

A

prenatal environment is an important factor

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16
Q

Evidence indicates that incidence of schizophrenia is related to several environmental factors that could affect development in utero:

A

season of birth, viral epidemics, population density, and substance abuse

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17
Q

what is The seasonality effect:

A

a disproportionately large number of schizophrenic patients are born in February, March, April, and May

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18
Q

The number of schizophrenic births in late winter and early spring is especially high if the temperature was _____ than normal during previous autumn

A

lower

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19
Q

The number of schizophrenic births in late winter and early spring is especially high if the temperature was lower than normal during previous autumn
WHY IS THIS

A

This condition keeps people indoors and favors transmission of viral illnesses

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20
Q

higher change of getting schizophrenia if you live in rural or urban areas?

A

Schizophrenia is also about three times more prevalent in people who live in the middle of large cities as compared to those who live in rural areas
– This result suggests transmission of infectious illnesses is facilitated by increased population density

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21
Q

how does vitamin d play a role in the likelihood of getting schizophrenia

A

Although cold weather and crowding may contribute to seasonality effect by increasing likelihood of infectious illness, another variable may also play role: vitamin D deficiency
• Northern European researchers have observed threefold increase in incidence of schizophrenia in immigrants and children of immigrants—especially in dark-skinned people who moved up north
• Another environmental risk factor for development of schizophrenia is parental smoking

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22
Q

when do symptoms of schizophrenia start

A

Symptoms of schizophrenia are not normally seen in childhood, however behavioral and anatomical evidence indicates that abnormal prenatal development is associated with schizophrenia

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23
Q

what are some Behavioural symptoms of children who go on to develop schizophrenia

A

Children who go on to develop schizophrenia display less sociability and deficient psychomotor functioning as kids.

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24
Q

what are some Anatomical symptoms of children who go on to develop schizophrenia

A

Minor physical abnormalities are often seen in children who go on to develop schizophrenia, such as partial webbing of the two middle toes and a high- steepled palate.

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25
Q

Many studies have found evidence of______ in CT and MRI scans of schizophrenic patients

A

loss of brain tissue

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26
Q

is Schizophrenia a neurodegenerative disease

A

Schizophrenia is not a neurodegenerative disease

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27
Q

The main treatment of schizophrenia is what

A

antipsychotic medication, often in combination with psychological and social supports

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28
Q

what is The Dopamine Hypothesis

A

excessive dopamine D2 receptor activity, particularly in the nucleus accumbens (striatum), underlies the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Many drugs have been developed that relieve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. They are called antipsychotics or neuroleptics and they all block dopamine D2 receptors.
• In contrast, dopamine receptor agonists, like crystal meth and cocaine, tend to temporarily elicit certain aspects of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia in people who do not have the disorder.

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29
Q

positive symptoms of schizophrenia can often be managed with what

A

dopamine D2 receptor antagonists

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30
Q

Although the positive symptoms of schizophrenia can often be managed with dopamine D2 receptor antagonists, these drugs do not significantly reduce what

A

the negative symptoms of the disease

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31
Q

Some evidence suggests that the negative symptoms of schizophrenia result from what

A

abnormal brain activity in the prefrontal cortex.

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32
Q

Some evidence suggests that the negative symptoms of schizophrenia result from abnormal brain activity in the prefrontal cortex.
– For example, the negative symptoms of schizophrenia are similar to those produced by damage where

A

to the prefrontal cortex, and schizophrenic patients do poorly on neuropsychological tests that are sensitive to prefrontal damage

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33
Q

In general, the negative symptoms of schizophrenia may be caused by what

A

hypofrontality

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34
Q

what is hypofrontality

A

decreased activity of the frontal lobes, particularly the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which may relate to hypoactivity of D1 receptor activity in this area

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35
Q

While excess dopamine signaling in the striatum has been associated with the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, reduced dopamine signaling in the prefrontal cortex has been associated with what

A

the negative symptoms

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36
Q

is it possible that schizophrenics have too little dopamine in the prefrontal cortex and too much elsewhere.

A

yes

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37
Q

The atypical antipsychotic clozapine has been found (in monkeys) to do what

A

simultaneously decrease dopamine levels in the striatum and increase dopamine levels in the prefrontal cortex

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38
Q

what are Atypical antipsychotic medications

A

Recently developed medications which aim to reduce both the positive symptoms and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. They typically influence the activity of several neurotransmitter receptors (beyond blocking the dopamine D2 receptor).

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39
Q

what is Clozapine

A

First of the atypical antipsychotic medications. It blocks both dopamine D2 and serotonin 2A receptors

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40
Q

what is Aripiprazole

A

An atypical antipsychotic. It acts as partial agonist at the dopamine D2 and D3 receptors. It is thought to reduce dopamine receptor activity in the striatum (nucleus accumbens) but boost it in the prefrontal cortex.

41
Q

The atypical antipsychotic Aripiprazole is a what

A

partial dopamine D2 receptor agonist

42
Q

what is A partial agonist

A

a drug with very high affinity for a receptor but it activates it less than the normal ligand does.

43
Q

A partial agonist can act as what

A

an agonist in regions of low concentration of normal ligand and as antagonist in regions of high concentrations

44
Q

define Affect

A

As a noun, affect refers to feelings or emotions

Just as the primary symptom of schizophrenia is disordered thoughts, mood affective disorders (mood disorders) are characterized by disordered feelings

45
Q

what is Mood (affective) disorder

A

Serious mood disorder

46
Q

There are two principal types of mood disorders:

A

bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder

47
Q

are Affective disorders dangerous

A

prevalent and dangerous

48
Q

who has affective disorders

A

In adults, almost 12% of women and 8% of men have had a mood disorder in the past year

49
Q

Severely depressed people usually feel…

A

unworthy, hopeless, and have strong feelings of guilt

50
Q

Person who suffers from major affective disorder runs considerable risk of death by what

A

suicide

51
Q

what is Bipolar disorder

A

Serious mood disorder characterized by cyclical periods of mania and depression.
It affects ~1% of the population.
~80% of the risk is attributed to genetics

52
Q

what is Major depressive disorder (MDD)

A

Serious mood disorder that consists of unremitting depression or periods of depression (that do not alternate with periods of mania).
Prevalence rates vary widely (3-20%). ~40% of the risk is attributed to genetics

53
Q

Environmental factors for mood disorders include what

A

traumatic/abusive childhood experiences

54
Q

people with BIPOLAR DISORDER have episodes of what

A

Mania

55
Q

what is Mania

A

Episodes of mania are characterized by sense of euphoria that does not seem to be justified by circumstances
• People with mania usually exhibit nonstop speech and motor activity

56
Q

Diagnosis of mania is partly a matter of what

A

degree; one would not call exuberance and a zest for life pathological

57
Q

what are the BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS FOR BIPOLAR

A

Lithium

58
Q

what is lithium

A

Chemical element

Lithium salts are used to treat bipolar disorder

59
Q

lithium is Most effective in treating what

A

manic phase of bipolar affective disorder

60
Q

Once mania is eliminated, does depression follow

A

not usually

61
Q

is lithium understood fully

A

Therapeutic effect of lithium is very rapid. The mechanism of action is unknown

62
Q

There are several established and experimental biological treatments for major depressive disorder (MDD):

A 
Drugs that increase serotonin and/or norepinephrine signaling by inhibiting their enzymatic breakdown (e.g., monoamine oxidase inhibitors, MAOi) or by blocking their reuptake (e.g., tricyclics and serotonin specific reuptake inhibitors, SSRIs).
– Ketamine (NMDA glutamate receptor blocker)
– Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
– Deep brain stimulation
– Transcranial magnetic stimulation
– Vagus nerve stimulation
– Bright-light therapy (phototherapy)
– Sleep deprivation
63
Q

what is Tricyclic antidepressant (BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS FOR MDD)

A

Inhibits reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine but also affects other neurotransmitters;
Named for the molecular structure

64
Q

explain Serotonin specific reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS FOR MDD

A 
A class of drugs that specifically inhibit the reuptake of serotonin without affecting the reuptake of other neurotransmitters.
The most common one is Prozac (fluoxetine). Similar drugs are Celexa, Paxil, Zoloft, etc...
65
Q

explain Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI)
(BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS FOR MDD)

A

Antidepressant drug that specifically inhibits reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin without affecting reuptake of other neurotransmitters.

66
Q

what is the MONOAMINE HYPOTHESIS

A

Based largely on the success tricyclic and SSRI treatments, the monoamine hypothesis of depression was
developed. The idea is that depression is caused by insufficient monoamine receptor activity (the monoamines are serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine).
Because symptoms of depression are generally not relieved by potent dopamine receptor agonists such as amphetamine or cocaine, most investigators have focused their research efforts on the other two monoamines: norepinephrine and serotonin.

67
Q

what is the Tryptophan Depletion Procedure

A

Tryptophan is the molecular precursor to serotonin. Giving people a low-tryptophan diet and then a tryptophan-free amino acid 􏰀cocktail􏰁 lowers brain tryptophan levels and consequently decreases their synthesis of serotonin (5-HT).
• Although SSRIs and SNRIs increase the levels of 5-HT and norepinephrine in the brain very rapidly, the drugs do not relieve symptoms of depression until they have been taken for several weeks
• This suggests that something other than a simple increase in monoamine receptor activity is responsible for the normalization of mood

68
Q

what is Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

A

Used therapeutically to alleviate severe depression and bipolar disorder.
• Seizures are electrically induced by applying brief electrical shocks to the head
• In contrast to the delayed therapeutic effects seen with monoamine related treatments, the effects of other treatments (including ECT, lithium, DBS, VNS, and sleep deprivation) are more rapid. The seizures induced by ECT often reduce symptoms within days.

69
Q

what is the ROLE OF THE FRONTAL CORTEX in mood disorders

A

Functional imaging scans have been done on many depressed patients, both before and after a variety of successful treatments.
• There are few (if any) correlations. However, the argument has been made that one area of the anterior cingulate cortex (the subgenual region known as area 25) becomes less active after successful treatments.

70
Q

what is deep brain stimulation

A

Deep brain stimulation has been tried in the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex as well as in the nucleus accumbens
• Other promising approaches involve transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) directed to areas of the PFC or vagal nerve stimulation (VNS).

71
Q

One of the most prominent symptoms of depression is what

A

disordered sleep

72
Q

what is the role of sleep in people with symptoms of depression

A

The sleep of people with depression tends to be shallow
• The amount of stage 1 sleep that depressed people have is increased (i.e., their light sleep). Their slow- wave deep sleep is reduced (stages 3 and 4).
• Their REM sleep tends to occurs earlier in the night than for other people, soon after falling asleep.
• Their sleep is also fragmented – they tend to awaken frequently, especially toward morning

73
Q

what is Total Sleep Deprivation

A

One of most effective antidepressant treatments is total sleep deprivation

74
Q

One of most effective antidepressant treatments is total sleep deprivation, how does this work

A

Total sleep deprivation has immediate antidepressant effects on depression
• Typically, depression is lifted by staying up overnight, but it returns after a normal night’s sleep
• This suggests that during sleep the brain produces a chemical that has antidepressant effect.
• REM sleep deprivation also works, although more slowly, over the course of several weeks (similar to SSRIs).

75
Q

define Anxiety disorder

A

a variety of psychological disorders characterized by unrealistic and unfounded fear and anxiety. Includes tension, over activity of the autonomic nervous system, expectation of an impending disaster, and continuous vigilance for danger.

76
Q

define Generalized anxiety disorder

A

Disorder characterized by excessive anxiety and worry serious enough to cause disruption of their lives

77
Q

what is Social anxiety disorder

A

Disorder characterized by excessive fear of being exposed to the scrutiny of other people that leads to avoidance of social situations in which person is called on to perform

78
Q

what is Panic disorder

A

what is Disorder characterized by episodic periods of severe and unremitting terror. Includes symptoms such as shortness of breath, irregularities in heartbeat, and other autonomic symptoms, accompanied by intense fear

79
Q

what is Anticipatory anxiety

A

Fear of having a panic attack promotes anticipatory anxiety that sometimes leads to the development of agoraphobia

80
Q

define Agoraphobia

A

Fear of being away from home or other protected places

81
Q

do people just have one type of anxiety disorder

A

People often have more than one type of anxiety disorder

82
Q

The cause of anxiety disorders is what

A

combination of genetic and environmental factors.

83
Q

Environmental risk factors fo anxiety include what

A

history of child abuse and poverty.

84
Q

Anxiety disorders often occur with what

A

other mental disorders, particularly major depressive disorder, personality disorder, and substance use disorder. Older people who have dementia often have problems with anxiety.

85
Q

about how many people are affected by an anxiety disorder in a given year.

A

About 12%

86
Q

do more women or men get anxiety

A

It appears twice as often in females as males and generally begin before the age of 25.

87
Q

12% of people will develop a specific phobia and 10% will develop what

A

social anxiety disorder at some point in their life

88
Q

explain ANXIETY DISORDER’s BRAIN ACTIVITY

A

Functional brain imaging studies suggest that the amygdala and prefrontal cortex are involved in anxiety disorders
• Adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder showed increased activation of the amygdala and decreased activation of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex while looking at angry faces
• College students with a high level of anxiety showed increased activation of the amygdala, which positively correlates with students’ anxiety measures

89
Q

what is used to treat anxiety

A

Benzodiazepines are often used for emergency medical treatment for anxiety disorders because therapeutic effects of these drugs have rapid onset
• However, they are less satisfactory for long-term treatment, as they cause sedation, induce tolerance, and they have a potential for abuse
• For these reasons, researchers have been seeking other drugs to treat anxiety disorders. Selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitors are frequently considered as a first line treatment for anxiety disorders

90
Q

OCD is characterized by what

A

a need to repeatedly check things, repeatedly perform certain routines (“rituals”), or repeatedly having certain thoughts (“obsessions”).

91
Q

The compulsive behaviours often include what

A

hand washing, cleaning, counting things, or checking things (e.g., to see if a door is locked).

92
Q

The obsessions are often about what

A

germs and bodily fluids

93
Q

do most adults with OCD realize that their behaviours do not make sense

A

yes

94
Q

OCD impacts how many

A

about 2%

95
Q

who is more likely to get OCD

A

Females may be slightly more likely than males to get
the diagnosis
• OCD most commonly begins in young adulthood (before age 25)
• The cause of OCD is a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Genetic factors account for ~50% of the variability.
• Environmental risk factors include a history of child abuse or other adverse events. Some cases have been documented following infections.

96
Q

what is the treatment of OCD

A

Treatment always involves counseling, often a version of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) known as exposure
and response prevention, which involves increasing exposure to what causes the problems while not allowing the repetitive behavior to occur.
• Treatment sometimes includes antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
• Without treatment, the condition often lasts decades.
• Deep brain stimulation within basal ganglia areas is an active area of research.

97
Q

OCD symptoms CAN appear after…

A

Sometimes OCD symptoms appear after brain damage, particularly to basal ganglia, cingulate gyrus, or prefrontal cortex

98
Q

Several functional imaging studies have found evidence of increased activity where

A

in the frontal lobes and striatum in patients with OCD

99
Q

Treatment for severe cases of OCD can include a brain lesion, specifically a cingulotomy… what is this

A

the cutting of a fiber bundle between PFC and anterior cingulate.

U1 Behavioural Neurological Psychology 211 (22 decks)

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