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U1 Behavioural Neurological Psychology 211 > Lecture 2 > Flashcards

Lecture 2 Flashcards

Chapters 1b and 2a

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1
Q

are K+ and Na+ same or different?

A

K+ is bigger in every way

more protons, neutrons, electrons). They have the same charge when dissolved in water (+1

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2
Q

What person advanced the field of neuroscience the most?

A

Charles Darwin

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3
Q

what was Charles Darwin’s idea

A

All animals in the world, all cells in the world have a lot in common, because they all are descendants of a common ancestor.

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4
Q

The current diameter of our observable universe is what

A

91 billion light years

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5
Q

The current diameter of our observable universe is 91 billion light years,
but this limit exists simply because why

A

of the slow speed of light.

The size of the entire universe might be 1023times this amount (no one knows).

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6
Q

when did the universe expand

A

abou 14 billion years ago

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7
Q

All the ordinary matter of the universe is made from what

A

the elements on the periodic table

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8
Q

Achemical elementis what

A

an atom

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9
Q

how long did inflation last?

A

less than a second but not sure how much

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10
Q

Atoms have a specific number of what

A

protons

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11
Q

when 2 atoms come together what is this called

A

a compound which makes a molecule

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12
Q

if a molecule or singular atom has an electrical charge this is called what

A

an ion

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13
Q

what is an ionic bond

A

when the charted particles come together

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14
Q

what happens when an ion is dropped in water

A

breaks apart and dissolves

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15
Q

Atoms held together by ionic bonds are called what

A

salts (like the table salt NaCl).

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16
Q

A chemical reaction is what

A

when chemical bonds (chemical compounds) are formed, broken, or modified

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17
Q

chemical reactions often involve what

A

These reactions often just involve a rearrangement of the electrons around the atoms involved

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18
Q

The likelihood of a chemical reaction depends on many factors. Living entities (life) regulate chemical reactions to do what

A

create order, grow, and accomplish things.

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19
Q

Planet Earth was formed when

A

4.5 billion years ago

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20
Q

life as we know it formed when

A

Sometime in the 1st billion years

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21
Q

The main elements of cells (of life on Earth) are:

A

The acronymCHNOPS, which stands for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus,sulfur, represents the six most importantchemical elementswhose covalent combinations make up mostbiologicalmoleculeson Earth

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22
Q

what % of Hydrogen in the elements of cells (of life on earth) and what is the number of protons

A

59% Hydrogen (H, the element with 1 proton)

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23
Q

what % of Oxygen in the elements of cells (of life on earth) and what is the number of protons

A

24% Oxygen (O, the element with 8 protons)

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24
Q

what % of Carbon in the elements of cells (of life on earth) and what is the number of protons

A

11% Carbon (C, the element with 6 protons)

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25
Q

what % of Nitrogen in the elements of cells (of life on earth) and what is the number of protons

A

4% Nitrogen (N, the element with 7 protons)

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26
Q

what % of Others in the elements of cells (of life on earth) and what is the number of protons

A

2% Others (phosphorus, sulfur, …)

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27
Q

the CHNOPS are classified as what

A

non metals but reactive

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28
Q

The CHNOPS elements come together in different combinations to form a handful of different types of molecules such as: (5 of them)

A 
Water
Sugar
Lipid
Nucleic acid
Amino acid

Almost everything found in a cell is one of these molecules or it is made up of a chain of these molecules (i.e., a chain of sugars or a chain of lipids, etc.)

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29
Q

what are lipids

A

the fat that makes o the cell wall

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30
Q

what are Nucleic acid

Amino acid

A

made up of the same 6 elements but slightly diff orientation

everything in cell that is not sugar water or fat is going to be made up of nucleic acid or amino acid

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31
Q

all molecules in a cell are what

A

long chains!

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32
Q

how many atoms are in any given part of the chain is the question

A

30-50 kinds of atoms in on blink but then you can get up yo million when looking at the longer chains

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33
Q

70% of total cell mass is what

A

water

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34
Q

Beside water (70% of total cell mass), cells are made up of:

A

15% Sugars (strings of sugar molecules are called carbohydrates)
10% Lipids (cell membrane, fat)
15% Nucleic acids (DNA & RNA are strings of nucleic acids)
50% Amino acids (proteins are strings of amino acids; the instructions for how to make proteins are found in the DNA)

10% Other organic molecules

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35
Q

strings of sugar molecules are calledwhat

A

carbohydrates

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36
Q

strings of nucleic acids are what

A

DNA & RNA

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37
Q

strings of amino acids are what

A

proteins

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38
Q

the instructions for how to make proteins are found where

A

in the DNA

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39
Q

what is plasma membrane

A

cell wall

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40
Q

The prokaryotic cell consist of a plasma membrane (cell wall) filled with what

A

cytoplasm

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41
Q

what is cytoplasm

A

which is mostly salt water

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42
Q

what was the first cell to appear on earth

A

prokaryotic

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43
Q

The prokaryotic cell consist of a plasma membrane (cell wall) filled with cytoplasm (which is mostly salt water). Floating in the cytoplasm are what

A

Loose strings of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) - labeled chromatin

and

Proteins (made up of amino acids), which perform most of the functions within a cell.

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44
Q

Proteins are made by what

A

ribosomes

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45
Q

what are ribosomes made of

A

nucleic acids and proteins

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46
Q

Ribosomes form proteins how

A

by linking together amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) in the order dictated by the DNA genetic code.

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47
Q

what are proteins

A

Proteins are what do things in cells

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48
Q

are there lots of different types of proteins?

A

hell yes

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49
Q

what are Enzymes

A

Enzymes are proteins that perform (catalyze) chemical reactions

50
Q

what are Receptors

A

Receptors are proteins that sense things and react accordingly

51
Q

what make up the scaffolding and roads of a cell

A

Proteins are also what make up the scaffolding and roads of a cell. They also mediate transport and storage. They also serve as messengers

52
Q

when did complex eukaryotic cells form

A

Sometime in next 2 billion years

53
Q

what is required for a cell to move

A

ATP

54
Q

what is ATP

A

energy

55
Q

prokaryotic cells are always starved for what

A

energy

56
Q

how are eukaryotic cells thought to have formed

A

there was a small bacteria (single cell) and some bigger ones
the bigger ones engulfed the smaller ones
normally would break it down to smaller parts but then it realized if it didnt break it down it would keep having energy and this formed a symbiotic relationship (the mitochondria was the cell that was engulfed and then not broken down)

57
Q

The eukaryotic cell is similar, but it…

A

Organizes the DNA into a nucleus, from which the DNA cannot escape

and

2) It also has mitochondria, which are responsible for extracting energy from nutrients. This energy is typically stored in the molecular bonds of the molecule ATP.

58
Q

what is the nucleus form

A

organized place to hold DNA

59
Q

what do lysosomes do

A

garbage removal

60
Q

A chromosome is a strand of what

A

DNA

61
Q

A gene is what

A

a section (a functional unit) of a chromosome. It is a section of DNA unit that encodes a specific protein

62
Q

When a gene is active (being read), copies of it are made (transcribed) into what

A

RNA

63
Q

This RNA leaves the nucleus, where a ______ _______ into a protein.

A

ribosome translates

64
Q

The genome of a cell (of an organism) refers to what

A

all the DNA sequences in the soma. The genome provides the information necessary to synthesize all the proteins for a particular organism.

65
Q

Humans have about 20,000 protein-encoding genes in their genome.
Note, however, that genes can often be read in “alternative” ways, which can result in there being different versions of one type of protein. These protein variants are known as what

A

protein isoforms. Often several protein isoforms are made from a single gene

66
Q

The Eukaryotic Cell Body is called what

A

Soma

67
Q

The soma of a cell is where the what is located

A

nucleus is located

68
Q

The nucleus houses what

A

the strands of DNA (the chromosomes) within a cell

69
Q

Neurons are typically defined by what

A

where their soma are located (e.g. hippocampal neurons).

70
Q

what is Cytoplasm

A

a gelatinous, semi- transparent fluid in which organelles are suspended.

71
Q

what is Membrane

A

defines the outer boundary of the cell. It consists of lipids and is embedded with proteins that have special functions.

72
Q

what are Microtubules

A

allow for rapid transport of material throughout the neuron.

like a highway system through the cell to move things efficiently

73
Q

There are dozens of instances throughout history were collections of eukaryotic cells came together to form multicellular organisms.

Once multicellular organisms were formed, cells began to specialize, and the structure and function of life became almost limitless. Organisms known as animals first appeared when

A

around 650 million years ago

74
Q

Nerve cells evolved when

A

600 million years ago

75
Q

Nerve cells haven’t changed that much in the last hundreds of millions of years. So, to understand how human neurons work, you can study what animal

A

squid

76
Q

The 1963 Nobel Prize was awarded for what (in relation to the squid)

A

describing how neurons transmit electrical signals, i.e. the action potential

77
Q

The 2000 Nobel Prize was awarded for describing the neuronal basis of learning and memory.

This work was done on what

A

a sea slug

78
Q

In the mammalian kingdom, brain structure is highly ______ between species

A

similar

79
Q

why are rodents the dominant group of species used in neurobiology research

A

40% of the mammalian species alive today are rodents. 20% are bats.

Rodents are evolutionarily closer to humans than cats, dogs, bats, sloths, elephants, etc.

Because of the genetic and behavioural similarities between humans and rodents, as well as their small size, rodents have become the dominant group of species used in neurobiology research.

80
Q

By learning what makes mice feel hungry or sexual, depressed or anxious, motivated or tired at the neuronal level what do we gain

A

we can get a very clear idea of how similar processes work in the human brain.

81
Q

humans and chimpanzees share what percent of their DNA

A

98.8

82
Q

After birth, the human brain continues to_____ __ ____ in a dramatic fashion

A

grow larger and heavier

83
Q

do neurons keep producing

A

Production of new neurons almost ceases at birth, but those that are already present grow and establish connections with each other, and other types of brain cells, which protect and support neurons, begin to proliferate

84
Q

what is Neoteny

A

extended youth – Prolongation of maturation

85
Q

when does human brain reach its adult size of approximately 1400 g—about four times weight of newborn’s brain

A

Not until late adolescence

86
Q

Given the properties of planet Earth, how likely was the formation of life and evolution of intelligent, verbal beings?

Was this process fairly inevitable given the billions of years, or was it highly improbable?

Were we just lucky?

A

it was just a matter of time and evolution

mAYBE the development of language was a lucky thing because we are the only species with this complexity

87
Q

what is the Fermi Paradox

A

where is everybody?

Within our galaxy, the Milky Way, there is estimated to be about 40 billion planets that could support life (earth-like planets).

The Milky Way galaxy is over 13 billion years old, so some earth-like planets may be much older than our relatively young planet earth.

Ifinterstellar travelis possible, even the “slow” kind nearly within the reach of Earth technology, then it would only take from 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the Milky Way galaxy.

There is estimated to be over 2 trillion galaxies in our observable universe.

So, where is everybody?

88
Q

what are Basic structure of the neuron

A 
dendrites
terminal buttons
synapse
myelin sheath
soma (cell body
89
Q

what is Soma (cell body)

A

contains the nucleus and is the metabolic centre of the neuron.

90
Q

what are Dendrites

A

are branched, treelike extensions of the soma. They receive information from other cells and carry it to the soma

91
Q

what are Terminal buttons

A

are button-like endings of the axon branch. They release neurotransmitters after receiving an action potential

92
Q

what is synapse

A

Terminal buttons are button-like endings of the axon branch. They release neurotransmitters after receiving an action potential.
They connect with another neuron via a synapse, which is the junction between an axon terminal and the membrane of another neuron.

93
Q

The axon carries information (via an action potential) from the soma to the axon terminals. It is often insulated by what

A

a fatty myelin sheath, which improves conduction velocity and fidelity

94
Q

do Neurons have a resting membrane potential? what is it?

A

yes, -40 to -90 mV

in nerve and muscle

95
Q

The main elements of cells are:

A 
59% Hydrogen (H)
 24% Oxygen (O)
 11% Carbon (C)
   4% Nitrogen (N)
 2% Others (phosphorus, sulfur, …)
96
Q

what are the Positively charged ions

A

monovalent cations:
sodium (Na+), potassium (K+)

divalent cations :
calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+)

97
Q

what are the Negatively charged ions

A

monovalent anions:
chloride (Cl-)

divalent anions :
phosphate (HPO42-)

98
Q

what is Intracellular fluid

A

Fluid contained within cells

99
Q

what is Extracellular fluid

A

Fluid located outside of cells

100
Q

Neurons sit in and are full of what

A

salt water

101
Q

Neurons sit in and are full of salt water. The salt is mostly what

A

NaCl and KCl

102
Q

The lipid bilayer is impermeable to what

A

ions

103
Q

If there is an equal concentration of positively and negatively charged ions on either side of the membrane, then:

A

Outside of cell = 0 mV

Inside of cell = 0 mV

104
Q

potential is measured how

A

by comparing 2 things

105
Q

Two proteins are responsible for setting up and maintaining the resting membrane potential of neurons:

A

Sodium-Potassium transporter (aka sodium potassium pump)

Leak potassium channels

106
Q

what is Sodium-Potassium transporter (aka sodium potassium pump)

A

(requires ATP; concentrates sodium and potassium outside and inside the cell, respectively)

107
Q

what are Leak potassium channels

A

(always open; the number of these channels dictates the resting membrane potential)

108
Q

what happens with With the Sodium-Potassium Pump

A

K+ is pumped in while Na+ is pumped out

required ATP to spin around a release

109
Q

with Sodium-Potassium Pump, each is pumped in or out so There is no electrical charge difference yet (membrane potential = 0), since there are similar amounts of positive ions inside and out, but there is what

A

potential energy

110
Q

There is no electrical charge difference yet (membrane potential = 0), since there are similar amounts of positive ions inside and out, but there is a potential energy here based on the force of diffusion.
what does this mean

A

Basically, the K+ ions feel crowded in the cell and want to leave

111
Q

what is The Force of Diffusion

A

naturally wants to leave

Diffusion
Movement of molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration
When there are no forces or barriers to prevent them from doing so, molecules will diffuse from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration

112
Q

If you give K+ ions the freedom to leave the cell (by putting open potassium channels in the membrane), they will do so due to the force of diffusion.
These channels are called what

A

potassium leak channels

113
Q

what happens if Outside of cell = 0 mV

Inside of cell = -60 mV

A

The charge inside a neuron can reach -90mV before its electrostatic energy is equal and opposite to the force of diffusion.
The more leak channels a neuron has, the more permeable it is to K+ and the closer its membrane potential will be to the true equilibrium of these forces.

114
Q

how many potassium ions need to leave the cell for the membrane potential to fall to -60 mV. This amount is actually very small (<0.0001% of the potassium ions inside the cell).

A

Tens of millions

115
Q

Neurons vary in their expression of K+ leak channels, and typical resting membrane potentials range from what

A

40 to -90 mV

it will never actually get to -90… -60 is the typical!

116
Q

is there always more K+ or Na+ in the cell?

A

always more sodium out than in and more potassium in than out

117
Q

basically what is The Membrane potential

A

Balance of Two Forces

118
Q

what are Ions

A

Charged molecule
Cations are positively charged
Anions are negatively charged

119
Q

what is Electrostatic pressure

A

Attractive force between atomic particles charged with opposite signs or repulsive force between atomic particles charged with same sign

120
Q

what are Ion channels

A

Specialized protein molecule that permits specific ions to enter or leave cells

121
Q

what is Leak channel

A

K+ ion channel that is always open

122
Q

what are the parts to The Force of Electrostatic Pressure

A

ion
electrostatic pressure
ion channels
leak channels

U1 Behavioural Neurological Psychology 211 (22 decks)

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