lecture 13 Flashcards
what are Hormones
transmit messages from one part of body (secreting gland) to another (target tissue)
what are pheromones
carry messages from one animal to another. Some of these chemicals can affect reproductive behavior, just like hormones do.
Chemical released by one animal that affects behavior or physiology of another animal; usually smelled or tasted
Detection of normal odors is accomplished by what
the olfactory bulbs, which constitute the olfactory system
The effect of pheromones are mediated by another sensory organ what is it
Vomeronasal Organ (VNO)
what is the Vomeronasal Organ (VNO)
A small collection of sensory receptor cells that detect the
presence of certain molecules in the nasal cavity.
• Mediates effects of many pheromones in rodents, which often influence reproductive cycles and sexual behaviour
• Humans do not seem to have a functional VNO, although some pheromone effects have been demonstrated
Neurons in the VNO are typically activated when
a rodent investigates the mouth or anogenital region or another rodent
The VNO system connects to the accessory olfactory bulb via the vomeronasal nerve. Removal of the accessory olfactory bulb does what
disrupts the effects of pheromones in rodents
what are the 4 ‘ EFFECTS’ OF PHEROMONES
Lee-Boot Effect –
Whitten Effect –
Vandenbergh Effect –
Bruce Effect –
what is the Lee-Boot Effect
When female mice are housed together (without any male urine present), their estrous cycles slow down and eventually stop.
what is the Whitten Effect
Synchronization of menstrual or estrous cycles of group of females, which occurs only in presence of pheromones in male’s urine.
what is the Vandenbergh Effect
Earlier onset of puberty seen in female animals that are housed with males; caused by pheromone in male’s urine.
what is the Bruce Effect
The tendency for female rodents to terminate their pregnancies following exposure to the scent of an unfamiliar male.
does The urine of a castrated male produce any of these effects
The urine of a castrated male does not produce any of these effects
what are the Effects of Pheromones in Humans
The VNO does not appear to be functional in humans, as it shrivels up during fetal development and is missing critical proteins. However, some pheromone-related phenomena have been demonstrated in humans.
• For example, women who spend large amount of time together tend to have synchronized cycles—their menstrual periods began within a day or two of one another
• In addition, women who regularly spend some time in presence of men tend to have shorter cycles than those who rarely spend time with men
Emotions exist in the abstract what does this mean
You can cognitively think about emotions and make your face artificially express specific emotions (like when people tell you to smile to look happy or you pretend to be sad).
Emotions exist in the abstract: You can cognitively think about emotions and make your face artificially express specific emotions (like when people tell you to smile to look happy or you pretend to be sad).
- This aspect of emotions is processed where
in the neocortex
Emotions exist as a feeling,, what is a feeling
a raw reflexive response to certain stimuli.
Emotions exist as a feeling, a raw reflexive response to certain stimuli.
- This aspect of emotions is processed where
the limbic system, most prominently in the amygdala
sensory input diverges into different pathways or ‘streams’ of information: a stream of thought and a stream of feeling.
where is each stream processed
The stream of thought is processed in the neocortex. The stream of feeling is processed in the limbic system.
THE RAW FEELING OF EMOTION COINCIDES WITH OTHER TYPES OF RESPONSES such as…
Behavioral responses
Autonomic responses
Hormonal responses
what are Behavioral responses
consists of muscular movements (facial expressions, body language, choreographed movements)
what are Autonomic responses
(signaling through peripheral nervous system) facilitate fight or flight behaviors and provide quick mobilization of energy for vigorous movement
what are Hormonal responses
(signaling through blood) reinforce the autonomic responses
Many species of animals broadcast their emotions with postural changes, facial expressions, and nonverbal sounds (such as sighs, moans, and growls). Facial expressions of emotion are minimal when…
people are by themselves
People can reliably discriminate between six different classes of
facial expression: what are they
fear, anger, surprise, disgusted, sad, and happy.
Recognizing the emotions of others through their facial expressions is generally what
automatic, rapid, and fairly accurate
Recognizing the emotions of others through their facial expressions is generally automatic, rapid, and fairly accurate. When people are given more time to think about the emotion conveyed by expression they had just seen, do they show improvement
they show very little improvement
Emotional facial expressions serve a ____function
social function
how do emotional facial expressions serve a social function
They enhance messages, convey genuineness, and foster trust. People gauge each other’s emotions to assess sincerity and authenticity
are Facial expressions learned
Facial expressions are innate, natural, unlearned responses involving complex muscles movements. The ability to display emotions and recognize them in others transcends cultural and linguistic barriers.
proof:
Babies as young as 36 hours display (mimic) universal facial expressions.
expressions in westerners, and westerners had no trouble recognizing emotional expressions in them.
• There are also no differences in facial emotional expressions between congenitally blind, non-congenitally blind, and sighted athletes
Genuine facial expressions of emotion tend to be what
automatic, involuntary
do artificial and authentic expressions use the same muscles
And genuine happy smiles involve different facial muscles than artificial smiles
what is Volitional facial paresis
a condition where people are unable to voluntarily control their facial muscles, but they can express genuine emotion with the same muscles. The reverse is true for a condition known as emotional facial paresis
what are the characteristics of Volitional facial paresis
Difficulty in moving facial
muscles voluntarily
• Caused by damage to face region of primary motor cortex or its subcortical connections
what are the characteristics of Emotional facial paresis
Lack of movement of facial
muscles in response to emotions in people who have no difficulty moving these muscles voluntarily
• Caused by damage to insular cortex, frontal lobe white matter , or parts of thalamus
The central nucleus of the amygdala does what
regulates emotional responses, particularly fear responses
what activates the central nucleus
Threatening stimuli
Lesions of the central nucleus do what
reduce/eliminate fear responses (behavioural, autonomic, and hormonal).
Stimulation of the central nucleus does what
causes fear, anxiety, and agitation. Persistent stimulation can promote stress induced illnesses (e.g. ulcers).
The central nucleus of the amygdala sends information where
various brain structures which control different emotional responses
Activation of the central nucleus elicits specific emotional reactions. The most prominent among them is fear and anxiety. It projects to many places, particularly where
the hypothalamus.
Activation of the medial nucleus does what
elicits sexual behaviour or aggression. It receives raw and processed sensory information and strongly projects to the hypothalamus.
The lateral nucleus does what
receives both raw and processed sensory information.
It projects to many places, most prominently the central nucleus of the amygdala.
does Viewing fearful faces activates the amygdala
yes
The amygdala receives inputs from the visual stream (superior colliculi, visual thalamus, and visual association cortex).
Damage to the amygdala does what
impairs the ability to recognise emotions (particularly fear) in the facial expressions of other people.
Patients with damage to visual association cortex are impacted how with regard to identifying emotions
Patients with damage to visual association cortex may have no conscious awareness of looking at a person’s face, yet can still show activity in the superior colliculi, visual thalamus, and amygdala
The amygdala is involved in feeling fear and recognizing fear in others, but it is not needed for what
to pretend to be afraid
explain the case of patient S.P
Patient S.P. received a bilateral amygdalectomy to treat a severe seizure. She has no trouble recognizing specific faces, but she cannot identify when they are exhibiting fear. To a lesser extent, but still significant, she also had diminished ability to recognize disgust, sadness, and happiness. Her ability to detect surprise and anger were unimpaired.
• S.P. can generate artificial expressions of emotion without problem, but she cannot identify the emotion of fear in photos taken of herself.
what is the correlation of recognition of emotion, eye movements and fixations
People tend to spontaneously look at and examine the eyes of a face to detect the emotional state of the person they are interacting with.
• S.M. is a patient with bilateral amygdala damage. When shown photographs of faces, she doesn’t look at the eyes.
• S.M. can recognise the emotion if she is trained to look at the eyes but she doesn’t do it spontaneously; she has to be reminded every time.
Beyond the amygdala, somatosensory cortex, insular cortex, premotor cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex are all involved in recognizing the emotions in people’s faces.
• Each of these areas are activated when what
we view emotional faces.
Beyond the amygdala, somatosensory cortex, insular cortex, premotor cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex are all involved in recognizing the emotions in people’s faces.
• Each of these areas are activated when we view emotional faces.
• Some people with damage in these regions (typically in the right hemisphere) have route with what
they cannot identify emotional facial expressions in other people
what are Mirror neurons
neurons that are activated similarly when an animal performs a particular behavior or when it sees another animal performing that behavior.
Mirror neurons have been found where
in many brain areas: somatosensory cortex, insular cortex, premotor cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex
Mirror neurons are thought to be involved in what
mimicry and empathy. It may be that when we see facial expressions, we unconsciously imagine ourselves making that expression, we (internally) imitate what we see
The somatosensory cortex may encode representations of what emotions ‘feel’ like (proprioceptively, kinaesthetically) why is the important
Knowing what it feels like to make a perceived expression, may help us recognize the emotion being expressed in the face we are viewing.
Most human fears are probably acquired how
socially, not through firsthand experience with painful stimuli, and activation of the mirror neuron system may promote certain types of indirect learning
We can recognize emotions in other people how
by the sound of their voice and choice of words.
Word comprehension is generally located where
in the left cerebral hemisphere for most people.
Word comprehension is generally located in the left cerebral hemisphere for most people. However, inferring emotions from the sound (tone) of someone’s voice primarily involves what
the right cerebral hemisphere
The amygdala is not strongly involves in either case.
what is the THEORY OF EMOTION
- Perception of the emotion-eliciting event (e.g. see a bear).
- Subjective feelings of emotion (e.g. fear).
- Behavioral and adaptive physiological responses (e.g. trembling, sweating and running away).
Therefore, the emotional feelings cause the emotional response.
what is the JAMES-LANGE THEORY
- Perception of emotion-eliciting event (e.g. see a bear).
- Appropriate set of behavioural and physiological responses are triggered (e.g. clench fists, run away, sweating, trembling, increased heart rate).
- The brain receives feedback from these changes in the peripheral nervous system which, in turn, produces our feelings of emotion.
The James-Lange theory was based on what
studies of people with spinal cord injuries at different levels in the late 1800s
The James-Lange theory was based on studies of people with spinal cord injuries at different levels in the late 1800s .
• People with spinal cord damage reported less intense emotional feelings. The reduction in emotional experiences correlated with what
how much sensation the people had lost (how paralyzed they were, the height of the spinal cord damage).
in the james lange theory, Some subjects looked and acted angry at times… but what did they report
they reported that they did not feel very angry
in the james lange theory, Interfering with the muscular movement associated with a particular emotion decreases people’s ability to do what
experience that emotion. This has been reported following botox injections into the face to reduce wrinkles.
Interfering with the muscular movement associated with a particular emotion decreases people’s ability to experience that emotion. This has been reported following botox injections into the face to reduce wrinkles.
• However…
Ø Our internal organs are relatively insensitive and do not respond
quickly enough to account for our emotional feelings.
Ø Cutting the sensory nerves between the internal organs and the central nervous system does not abolish emotional behaviour in animals.
Ø Injecting hormones or artificially activating the autonomic nervous system does not reliably or consistently produce specific emotions
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING is also known as what
PAVLOVIAN LEARNING
what is an unconditioned stimulus
something that has inherent value to an animal, like food reward or foot shock. No learning is needed (no conditioning). It is what it is.
what is an unconditioned response:
hard-wired, innate behavioural response to US
what is an conditioned stimulus:
a stimulus that was once considered neutral (e.g., a tone), but now it is thought to be predictive of an impending US (e.g., food reward or foot shock).
what is a conditioned response:
behaviour that occurs in response to a CS. The behaviour is often (but not always) similar to the UR that followed the US during training.
what is A conditioned emotional response
can arise from just one highly significant emotional experience. Conditioned emotional responses involving fear will include autonomic, behavioral, and endocrine components, such as changes in heart rate, freezing behaviour, and secretion of stress-related hormones
for conditioned emotional response, The activity of certain cells in the lateral amygdala can trigger a fear response
are these cells hardwired
These cells are hard-wired from birth to respond to certain stimuli
The activity of certain cells in the lateral amygdala can trigger a fear response. These cells are hard-wired from birth to respond to certain stimuli.
are These cells also respond to neutral stimuli
These cells also respond to neutral stimuli, but the strength of these synaptic inputs is too weak to drive spiking activity, at least initially
The activity of certain cells in the lateral amygdala can trigger a fear response. These cells are hard-wired from birth to respond to certain stimuli.
These cells also respond to neutral stimuli, but the strength of these synaptic inputs is too weak to drive spiking activity, at least initially.
The weak inputs become stronger when
if they are activated at the same time as the strong inputs.
The activity of certain cells in the lateral amygdala can trigger a fear response. These cells are hard-wired from birth to respond to certain stimuli.
These cells also respond to neutral stimuli, but the strength of these synaptic inputs is too weak to drive spiking activity, at least initially.
The weak inputs become stronger if they are activated at the same time as the strong inputs. They then become capable of doing what
triggering a fear response on their own
what is EXTINCTION LEARNING
After classical conditioning, animals respond to the CS (tone) with a CR (freezing). However, the CR can be extinguished if the CS keeps occurring without the US (the foot shocks). If you play the tone a bunch of times without shocking the animal, they will eventually stop being afraid when they hear it.
• This is called extinction learning
is extinction learning different from forgetting and from memory erasure
It is different from forgetting and from memory erasure, both behaviourally and neurobiologically
does Extinction learning completely eliminate likelihood the animal will respond to the CS with a CR,
Extinction learning reduces the likelihood the animal will respond to the CS with a CR, but it will not go to 0% – there is always some probability of the CR.
what is Spontaneous recovery
describes when the CR reappears for no apparent reason
what is Renewal
refers to when a change in context (new or old) brings back the
response
what is Reinstatement
refers to when random delivery of the old US brings back the
response.
what is Savings
refers to the reduction in amount of time that is needed to retrain the
animal on the same task or a related task (in comparison to the first learning of it).
Extinction learning is often dependent on what
the neural activity in the prefrontal cortex.
