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U1 Behavioural Neurological Psychology 211 > lecture 15 > Flashcards

lecture 15 Flashcards

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1
Q

Is there OBESITY TREATMENT

A

Surgeries have developed that are designed to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten during a meal or interfere with absorption of calories from the intestines

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2
Q

what is Bariatric surgery

A

aimed at stomach, small intestine, or both

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3
Q

The most effective form of bariatric surgery is special form of gastric bypass called what

A

the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, or RYGB

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4
Q

With RYGB surgery, what happens

A

jejunum (second part of small intestine, immediately “downstream” from duodenum) is cut, and upper end is attached to stomach pouch. (The digestive enzymes secreted into duodenum will now go upwards through upper intestine to meet up with meal in the stomach pouch.)

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5
Q

Rats that have the RYGB procedure do what

A

eat less, lose weight, and show decreased levels of ghrelin and increased levels of PYY.

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6
Q

what is Learning

A

refers to the process by which experiences change our nervous system and hence our behavior.

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7
Q

Learning refers to the process by which experiences change our nervous system and hence our behavior.
We refer to these changes as what

A

memories (memory traces or memory engrams)

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8
Q

what kinds of Memories are there

A

Memories can be transient or durable, conscious or unconscious, personal or impersonal

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9
Q

Accessing memories is known as what

A

memory retrieval

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10
Q

can memories go away

A

Memories traces can degrade or be corrupted, and thus be gone forever. They can also simply become inaccessible, either temporarily or permanently, but still exist somewhere in the brain.

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11
Q

what are the two types of learning

A

Associative Learning

Non-Associative Learning

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12
Q

what is Non-Associative Learning

A

Often refers to the phenomena of habituation and sensitization, which are when you start to respond differently
to a stimulus just because you have perceived it (seen it, smelled it, etc.) some number of times before. E.g., if a stimulus is neutral and without predictive value, animals habituate to it.

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13
Q

what animal was experimented on for Non-Associative Learning

A

The aplysia is an invertebrate sea slug with a simple nervous system (20,000 neurons).

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14
Q

why was the aplysia used for the experiment

A

It has a large gill for respiration, and a siphon through which it expels water.
􏰀 If the siphon is lightly touched, the gill withdraws reflexively.
􏰀 Repeated light touching of the siphon will reduce the magnitude of the reflex until the Aplysia completely ignores this stimulus

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15
Q

Repeated light touching of the siphon will reduce the magnitude of the reflex until the Aplysia completely ignores this stimulus.
􏰀 This waning of sensitivity to repeated stimulation is known as what

A

habituation

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16
Q

what is habituation

A

waning of sensitivity to repeated stimulation

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17
Q

the sea slug’s response to an electrical shock may become greater with additional exposures. Increased sensitivity to a stimulus is known as what

A

sensitization

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18
Q

what is sensitization

A

Increased sensitivity to a stimulus

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19
Q

Does the sensory neuron become less sensitive to touch? (HABITUATION OF APLYSIA GILL WITHDRAWAL REFLEX)

A

No, it depolarizes the same amount

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20
Q

Has the excitability of the sensory neuron changed?

(HABITUATION OF APLYSIA GILL WITHDRAWAL REFLEX)

A

Yes, fewer action potentials occur when the siphon is touched (3 after habituation vs 4 before it).

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21
Q

Has the synaptic connection weakened between the

sensory and motor neurons? (HABITUATION OF APLYSIA GILL WITHDRAWAL REFLEX)

A

Yes

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22
Q

Has the motor neuron become less excitable?(HABITUATION OF APLYSIA GILL WITHDRAWAL REFLEX)

A

No, it spikes the same amount when depolarized.

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23
Q

Has the synaptic connection weakened between the motor neuron and gill?(HABITUATION OF APLYSIA GILL WITHDRAWAL REFLEX)

A

no, the gill is as sensitive to an action potential in the motor neuron as before.

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24
Q

what is Intrinsic excitability

A

refers to the number of action potentials a neuron will exhibit in response to an influx of positive charge

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25
Q

Intrinsic excitability refers to the number of action potentials a neuron will exhibit in response to an influx of positive charge.
Ø This variable is heavily influenced what

A

by the type and number of leak channels and voltage-gated channels in the membrane. For example, if there are extra leak channels, the neuron will be less excitable (it will exhibit fewer action potentials in response to the same synaptic input).

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26
Q

what is Synaptic strength

A

refers to the amount of positive (or negative) charge that enters the postsynaptic neuron (the postsynaptic response) following an action potential in the presynaptic cell.

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27
Q

Synaptic strength refers to the amount of positive (or negative) charge that enters the postsynaptic neuron (the postsynaptic response) following an action potential in the presynaptic cell.
Ø This variable depends what

A

both pre- and postsynaptic conditions. For example, the number of presynaptic voltage-gated calcium channels influences how many vesicles will be released in response to an action potential. The number of postsynaptic neurotransmitter receptors influences the sensitivity of the cell to neurotransmitter.

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28
Q

Cell excitability and synaptic strength can be directly measured how

A

in brain slice recordings

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29
Q

Synaptic plasticity refers to what

A

refers to changes in the number or function of synapses, which alter the synaptic strength.

30
Q

what is EPSPs an acronym form

A

excitatory postsynaptic potentials

31
Q

what are EPSPs (excitatory postsynaptic potentials)

A

membrane depolarizations caused by evoked activity in some number of inputs (synapses).

32
Q

what is Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

the phenomenon by which EPSPs become stronger in a long-term, stable manner

33
Q

for Long-term potentiation (LTP), Long-term increase in the strength of the connection between what

A

two neurons (synaptic strength).

34
Q

for Long-term potentiation (LTP), Repeated high-frequency stimulation of the inputs to a neuron (synapses) can do what

A

increase the strength of the activated synapses. LTP is often mediated by an increase in postsynaptic neurotransmitter receptors.

35
Q

what is Long-term depression (LTD) and how does it work

A

Long-term decrease in the strength of the connection between two neurons (synaptic strength). Low-frequency stimulation of the inputs to a quiet neuron can decrease the strength of the activated synapses. LTD is often mediated by endocannabinoid signaling

36
Q

what is Hippocampal formation

A

Forebrain structure of temporal lobe, constituting important part of limbic system. Includes the CA1,2,3, as well as dentate gyrus and subiculum

37
Q

what is the Hippocampal formation involved in

A

Involved in learning and memory and shows remarkable synaptic plasticity in some areas

38
Q

High frequency stimulation (~100 Hz) for 1 second, repeated a few times at 10 second intervals often produces what

A

LTP

39
Q

High frequency stimulation (~100 Hz) for 1 second, repeated a few times at 10 second intervals often produces LTP.
• The same number of pulses given at a slow rate (1 Hz) over 5-10 minutes often produces what

A

the opposite effect: LTD

40
Q

High frequency stimulation (~100 Hz) for 1 second, repeated a few times at 10 second intervals often produces LTP.
• The same number of pulses given at a slow rate (1 Hz) over 5-10 minutes often produces the opposite effect: LTD. Why???

A

It turns out that LTP and LTD are influenced by both the amount of times the synapses was active as well as whether the postsynaptic neuron fired at those precise times

41
Q

High frequency input stimulation often causes downstream neurons to do what

A

spike

summation of EPSPs brings the neurons across threshold

42
Q

is Low frequency stimulation on its own sufficient to get downstream neurons to spike.

A

Low frequency stimulation on its own is often not sufficient to get downstream neurons to spike.

43
Q

For LTP to occur what needs to happen

A

the release of neurotransmitter has to coincide with a substantial depolarization of the postsynaptic cell

44
Q

what receptor is The Coincidence Detector

A

NMDA Glutamate receptor

45
Q

The NMDA receptor is what kind of receptor

A

ionotropic glutamate receptor (ion-channel gated by the neurotransmitter glutamate)

46
Q

The NMDA receptor is a ionotropic glutamate receptor (ion-channel gated by the neurotransmitter glutamate) that has a large ion pore. When the NMDA receptor binds glutamate and opens, magnesium (Mg2+) ions try to pass through the pore, what happens

A

they get stuck in it and completely block it. This Mg2+ blockage of the ion channel only occurs when the membrane potential is below threshold (< -40mV).

47
Q

if the NMDA Glutamate receptor membrane is depolarized (more positive than -40 mV), close to threshold or during an action potential, then what happens to the Mg2+ ions

A

Mg2+ ions will not try to enter and thus not clog the pore

48
Q

If the membrane is depolarized (more positive than -40 mV), close to threshold or during an action potential, then Mg2+ ions will not try to enter and thus not clog the pore. So, current flow through the NMDA channel is gated by what

A

both glutamate and membrane voltage

49
Q

what ions will enter a cell through NMDA receptors

A

Na+ and Ca2+ but only when these receptors are bound to glutamate and Mg2+ is not clogging the pore.

50
Q

The NMDA receptor plays a large role in what

A

learning

51
Q

what are the 4 main MECHANISMS OF SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY

A

AMPA receptor
NMDA receptor
CaMKII
Nitric oxide

52
Q

what is the AMPA receptor

A

The glutamate receptor that mediates most excitatory fast synaptic currents in the brain. It is ionotropic and opens when glutamate binds.
It lets in sodium ions which cause EPSPs (excitatory postsynaptic potentials) that depolarizes neurons

53
Q

what is the NMDA receptor

A

Ionotropic glutamate receptor that can get blocked by Mg2+ ions when glutamate binds while cell is hyperpolarized. It only opens when both glutamate binds and the membrane potential is slightly depolarized. It lets in both sodium and calcium. Most glutamate synapses in the brain have AMPA and NMDA receptors.

54
Q

what is the CaMKII

A

Type II calcium-calmodulin kinase. It is an enzyme that is activated by calcium influx through NMDA receptors. It plays a role in the intracellular signaling cascade that establishes long-term potentiation, by increasing the number of postsynaptic AMPA receptors.

(not focusing too much on this)

55
Q

what is Nitric oxide

A

LTP can also be expressed through changes on the presynaptic side of things, but postsynaptic neurons often initiate the process. Many experiments suggest that nitric oxide can act as a retrograde messenger (released from postsynaptic membrane and detected by presynaptic membrane) to promote LTP.

56
Q

do dentrites grow/form

A

yes, with LTP

57
Q

what is Associative Learning

A

Typically includes most forms of stimulus-stimulus & stimulus- response learning. Probably is responsible for all learning.

Basically, when you perceive a stimulus, it either makes you more likely to think of something else (stimulus-stimulus) or it makes you more likely to respond in some way (stimulus- response).

58
Q

what is Non-Associative Learning

A

Often refers to the phenomena of habituation and sensitization, which are when you start to respond differently to a stimulus just because you have perceived it (seen it, smelled it, etc.) some number of times before. E.g., if a stimulus is neutral and without predictive value, animals habituate to it.

59
Q

what is Associative long-term potentiation

A

The increase in synaptic strength that occurs in weak synapses when they are active right around the time when stronger inputs caused the postsynaptic neuron to spike

60
Q

what is Hebb’s rule

A

Hypothesis proposed by Donald Hebb that the cellular basis of learning involves the strengthening of synaptic connections that are active when the postsynaptic neuron fires an action potential. This is known as:
Fire together, wire together…more strongly than before. The synaptic connection does have to initially exist.

61
Q

what are the main NATURE OF LEARNING

A

Perceptual learning
Motor learning
Relational learning
Stimulus– response learning

62
Q

what is Perceptual learning

A

Learning to recognize stimuli

The basis of recognition & categorization
– Largely dependent on the neocortex – sensory association areas

63
Q

what is Motor learning

A

Learning to move effectively
Choreographed skilled movement sequences

The basis of motor skills (bike riding, ball throwing, etc….) – Involves different brain areas involved in movement

64
Q

what is Relational learning

A

Learning relationships among individual stimuli.

The basis of declarative memory, both episodic and semantic
– Largely dependent on the hippocampus and neocortex

65
Q

what is Stimulus– response learning

A

Learning the best motor response to particular stimuli

The basis of classical (Pavlovian) and instrumental (operant) conditioning – Involves different brain areas depending on the stimulus and response

66
Q

is Perceptual learning implicit memory or explicit

A

implicit

67
Q

is motor learning implicit memory or explicit

A

implicit

68
Q

is Relational learning (stimulus-stimulus learning) implicit memory or explicit

A

explicit

69
Q

is Stimulus– response learning implicit memory or explicit

A

both

70
Q

Perceptual learning enables us to recognize and identify what

A

object or situations. It is a pattern recognition system. Through perceptual learning we can recognize changes or variations in familiar stimuli and respond to those changes.

This unconscious, implicit learning involves changes in the strength of connections between neurons in primary and association sensory cortices

71
Q

what is Visual Agnosia

A

Damage to regions of brain involved in visual perception not only impair ability to recognize visual stimuli but also disrupt people’s memory of visual properties of familiar stimuli

so these people can draw something they are looking at currently, but if you ask them to draw it soon after they will only remember the VERY basics and it will look nothing like what it should

72
Q

Motor learning involves learning to make what

A

a sequence of coordinated movements.

Wegetfeedbackfromourmovementsfromour joints, vestibular system, eyes, ears, and everything else. We use this information to improve, optimize our movements

U1 Behavioural Neurological Psychology 211 (22 decks)

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