Lecture 2: Chapter 4: The Self

Question 1

What are the two components of self-knowledge?

Answer 1

1. Self-concept: what we know about ourselves and our qualities, actively constructed
2. Self-esteem: how we feel about ourselves, positive or negative evaluation of themselves

Question 2

How does our sense of self guide our behavior?

Answer 2

We put effort into showing others what kind of person we are

Question 3

How do we form our self-concept? Name 4 ways

Answer 3

1 Observing how we act
2 Our thoughts/emotions
3 The reaction of others towards us
4 Comparing ourselves with others

Question 4

What does the self-perception theory of Bem propose? What is the difference in effect between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation?

Answer 4

We learn things about ourselves by observing our own behavior

Intrinsic: people draw conclusions about themselves based on behavior
Extrinsic: undermines intrinsic motivation –> Overjustification effect

Question 5

What is the overjustification effect?

Answer 5

When an extrinsic motivation (e.g. salary) decreases intrinsic motivation (e.g. doing something because you like it)

Question 6

What is the role of thoughts and emotions in the formation of our self-concept?

Answer 6

If we have strong thoughts/emotions about something, this shows us preferences and values

It can play a bigger role than behavior in making inferences about our self-concept

Question 7

What is the looking-glass self? On which people does this have a large impact?

Answer 7

How others react to us, contributes to our self-concept, resembling a self-fulfilling prophecy

Someone will behave according to expectations of others and will develop a self-concept based on the expectations/opinions of others

The largest impact is on people who don’t have a lot of self knowledge –> young people

Question 8

What does the social comparison theory of Festinger propose? What are the 2 possible outcomes?

Answer 8

Self-concept is often formed and shaped by comparing ourselves to others

Two possible outcomes:
1. Contrast effect
2. Assimilation effect

Question 9

What is the difference between the contrast effect and the assimilation effect? Give an example for each

Answer 9

Contrast = effect of a comparison standard that makes our judgement more different from the standard
–> Example: comparing oneself to someone extremely talented makes us feel bad about ourselves

Assimilation = effect of a comparison standard that makes our judgement more similar to the standard
–> Example: comparing to someone slightly better than you but similar, will make you think you are slightly better than average

Question 10

What are the main differences in how we view others compared to how we view ourselves? Give a description of the 2 main differences

Answer 10

1. Differences in cues + knowledge:
   - More cues about ourselves than about others
   - We have access to inner thoughts and not to other people’s thoughts
2. Differences in inferences:
   - We are more aware of the impact certain things have on us than the impact on others, so we draw different inferences about causes of behavior
   - Actor-observer effect

Question 11

What is the actor-observer effect?

Answer 11

Humans tend to attribute own behavior to situational factors, while others’ behavior to internal characteristics

Question 12

What is the consequence of witnessing yourself in multiple different situations?

Answer 12

The knowledge you have about yourself is organized in roles, activities and relationships (self-aspects). We feel different in each role

Question 13

What is a self-schema? How do we defend it?

Answer 13

Key concepts that are dominant across all roles and situations you find yourself in

Defending:
- Selective memory: forget situations where our behavior was not in line with self-aspects
- Constant attempt in reinforcing self-schema

Question 14

What is self-esteem?

Answer 14

Assesses how we are doing in navigating our social worlds through the integration of our self-knowledge.

It’s a way to balance successes and failures to learn more about ourselves and it reflects how we are doing

It reflects compromises between accurate self-evaluation and self-enhancement

Question 15

Which 2 types of self-esteem are there?

Answer 15

1. Trait self-esteem: one’s chronic feelings about the self
2. State self-esteem: one’s fleeting/short-term feelings about the self in a certain moment

Question 16

Which two motivational principles play a large role in self-esteem?

Answer 16

Mastery/control and connectedness/belonging

–> If we do well at a task or when we feel included by others, we have a high self-esteem

Question 17

What is self-enhancement? What is the general/practical consequence of this?

Answer 17

The strengthening of self-esteem

Usually people overestimate their own abilities and performance

Question 18

What is the Lake Wobegon effect?

Answer 18

Most people think they score above average on a bunch of positive characteristics and abilities

Question 19

What is the self-enhancing bias?

Answer 19

Tendency to gather and interpret information about the self in a way that leads to overly positive evaluations of the self

Question 20

How do self-enhancing biases influence our self-esteem in a positive way?

Answer 20

Selecting jobs in which you can succeed, as this leads to memories of successes

Question 21

What is meant with high self-complexity in a person? How does such a person respond to positive and negative events?

Answer 21

People with diverse self-aspects

They tend to have stronger reactions to positive or negative events, since the event can affect at least 2 different self-aspects. A positive event would lead to more self-enhancement in these people

Question 22

Why is it harder being beaten at a game by your sibling than by a stranger?

Answer 22

Because the chance of social comparison is higher when being with your sibling

Question 23

What is the self-evaluation maintenance theory? How do we protect ourselves from feeling bad by comparing to others

Answer 23

It describes the conditions in which one’s self-esteem will be maintained or will be impaired based on social comparisons of close or distant others.

We try to avoid comparisons that make us feel bad through comparing ourselves to others who are worse than us (downward comparison) or establishing a distance between self and successful others

Question 24

Why do we self-enhance? Give 2 reasons

Answer 24

• Higher self-esteem leads to higher self-improvement through self-regulation
• People want to feel good about themselves and close to others due to motivation towards valuing me and mine (self-confidence)

Question 25

Which motivational principle fits with self-enhancement?

Answer 25

Valuing me and mine/self-confidence

Question 26

What is self-regulation?

Answer 26

Efforts to control ones behavior with internal or external standards

Question 27

What happens when the self-concept is formed?

Answer 27

People are less likely to make inferences from their behaviors to decide on who they are and this is what creates a stable sense of identity

The self-concept influences the way we think about ourselves and it tells us what types of social information are important to us

Question 28

Why do we have a self?

Answer 28

We know our functions to regulate many important aspects of our lives, including our thoughts, emotions and behavior

Question 29

What is the function of emotions regarding the self? Name 2

Answer 29

1. Indicate that something important is happening
2. Direct one’s behavior to reach goals

Question 30

What is appraisal?

Answer 30

The interpretation of an event, which includes the causes of the event and how the event affects the self

• They are flexible and others’ reactions have a big role.
• They direct emotional responses and behavior

Question 31

What do the emotions we experience and our beliefs about their causes reflect?

Answer 31

Our interpretations

Question 32

What are 4 important differences between construction of the self in individualist and collectivist cultures?

Answer 32

1. Definition of self:
   - I: unique individual
   - C: connected with others
2. Structure of self:
   - I: Stable, constant accross situations
   - C: Fluid, variable, changing per situation
3. Important features:
   - I: Internal, private self
   - C: External, public self (status, roles)
4. Significant tasks:
   - I: unique, express yourself, promote own goals, direct
   - C: belonging, act appropriate, promote group goals, indirect (read minds)

Question 33

How can we be misled by our emotions and their causes?

Answer 33

They are based on salient cues. These can be the cause of our emotions or they stem from earlier behavior

Question 34

Which reports of emotions fit with collectivist cultures and which fit with individualist cultures?

Answer 34

Collectivist: connectedness, familiarity
Westerners don’t tie the self to others as much –> more about uniqueness

Question 35

How can you describe emotions in different cultures?

Answer 35

There are the basic emotions that are similar across cultures

Other emotions differ. The most common ones are those that fit culturally valued types, because these emotions are favored by individuals’ patterns of appraisal and reinforced by others

Question 36

How do emotions affect our cognitive abilities?

Answer 36

Strong emotions create intense arousal which limits people to distribute cognitive resources to other events

Question 37

What is the relationship between emotions and bodily responses?

Answer 37

Emotions can evoke bodily responses and bodily responses can intensify emotions

Question 38

Give 3 different motives for choosing a particular behavior. What are the goals of each?

Answer 38

1. Self-expression: reveal self-concept through actions
   –> confirms sense of self
2. Self-presentation: try to shape others’ impression
   –> Gain influence/power
3. Self-monitoring: degree to whcih someone is sensitive to demands of social context and shape their behavior accordingly

Question 39

What is the regulatory focus theory (Higgins)? Which 2 self guides are there?

Answer 39

We impose personal standards for ourselves = self-guides

The self guides are:
- the ideal self (who we want to be) - - the ought self (who we should be)

Question 40

What does it mean when someone is high in self-monitoring?

Answer 40

Someone adapts quickly to what is asked from the context. (I put on a show to impress others, I deceive people by being friendly whilst I hate them)

Question 41

What is the difference between promotion focus and prevention focus in Higgins’s regulatory focus theory?

Answer 41

Promotion: self-regulation is guided by the ideal self
–> They seek opportunities to obtain positive outcomes related to their goals –> happy/sad

Prevention: self-regulation is guided by the ought self or other standards of duties/obligations
–> They seek to avoid negative outcomes related to goals –> relief/anxious

Question 42

What is the cultural difference between individualist and collectivist cultures concerning the regulatory focus theory?

Answer 42

Individualists are more focused on ideal self

Collectivist cultures are more focused on ought self

Question 43

What can be said about people that engage a lot in self-presentation? What is the difference with people that don’t do that?

Answer 43

They behave according to how they think they will leave the best impression –> High self-monitors

Low self-monitors: express internal afflictions more often and are seen as more stable from situation to situation

Question 44

What is self-control? What happens if you have too much of it?

Answer 44

Self-control is related to self-regulation and concerns the resistance of temptations

Too much self-control can lead to ego-depletion = exhausted and can’t invest self-control in another task, low amount of cognitive resources

Question 45

What is self-affirmation? Give an example

Answer 45

Any action or event that enhances/highlights one’s own sense of personal integrity

It can restore self-control when one is low on inner resources

E.g.: important personal values

Question 46

What is self-awareness? Give an example of a situation that increases this

Answer 46

State of heightened awareness of the self, including our internal standards an whether we measure up to them

E.g. being photographed, talking for an audience

Question 47

What is the self-awareness theory? What can you say about someone with high self-awareness?

Answer 47

Focusing attention on the self highlights the distance between our current self and our actual or ideal selves

This is unpleasant

If you’re high in self-awareness, you’re more likely to be aware of mismatches between actual self and internalized standards –> more feelings of distress

Question 48

Which 2 responses are there when events alarm us?

Answer 48

1. Deal with what set off the alarm
2. Try to change the way it makes us feel

Question 49

What are the 2 forms of coping?

Answer 49

1. Emotion-focused coping
2. Problem-focused coping

Question 50

What is emotion-focused coping? Give an example

Answer 50

Attempt to deal with stress by regulating one’s emotions

E.g.: escape emotions, substance abuse, writing down own feelings/emotions

Question 51

What is problem-focused coping? Give an example

Answer 51

Re-interpreting events as non-threatening and changeable

E.g.: making up excuses, self-handicapping (explain negative performances), taking control over situation (self-efficacy) or thinking of the event as a challenge instead of threat

Question 52

What characteristics can help to deal successfully with stress?

Answer 52

High self-esteem and high self-confidence

Question 53

What is the terror management theory?

Answer 53

Theory stating that reminders of one’s own mortality lead individuals to consider what’s most important in life

This can have positive and negative effects

Question 54

What is the effect of writing about a difficult event? What type of coping is this?

Answer 54

Short-term negative effects: difficult to write about it at the time

Long-term: better immunesystem

It helps to suppress/inhibit painful thoughts less and is the first step toward appraising negative events differently

This is emotion-focused coping

Question 55

What is the tend and befriend coping strategy? Of what type of coping is this an example?

Answer 55

Coping by nurturing one’s self and others and by creating/maintaining social networks of close others

Emotion-focused coping

Question 56

What is self-handicapping? What type of coping is this?

Answer 56

Seeking to avoid blame for a poor performance by claiming an excuse in advance or by actively sabotaging one’s own performance (e.g. not practising)

Problem-focused coping