Lecture 15 - Gender Differences

Question 1

Hitting on ppl study

Answer 1

Approached men ann women on campus

“Ive been noticing you around campus and I find you to be very attractive”

G1 - wouyld you go out with me tonight
G2 - Would you come over to my apartment tonight
G3 - Would you go to bed with me tonight

Results

G1= no gender difference in response
G2 = more men said yes than women (very few women)
G3 = no women, some men. Big gender difference

Question 2

Sex vs gender

Answer 2

Sex
Bio
Evolutionary

Gender
Social/cultural meaning of being male or female
Presumably due to roles and learning

Sometimes work together

Timing of puberty is influenced by HPA but social factors like absent father speed it up

Gender identity is affected by hormones (pre natal androgen)

Question 3

Effect Size

Answer 3

d=.2 (r=.1) Small
d=.5 (r=.3) Medium (only 33% dont overlap)
d=.8 (r=.5) Large (47% do not overlap)

Question 4

Biological differences

Male advantage is positive

Answer 4

Throwing 2.18

Long jump .54

fine eye motor coordination -.21

Question 5

Mental and social ability difference

Male advantage is positive

Answer 5

Math: d = .41

Visual-spatial perception: d = .64

Verbal tests: d = -.11

Decoding non-verbal cues: d = -.43

Question 6

Differences in personality and social behavior

Male advantage is positive

Answer 6

Aggression (children): d = .50

Aggression (adults): d = .29

Leadership: d = .41

Helping (group, emergency, alone): d = .34

Influenced by group: d = -.32

Eye gaze: d = -.68

Question 7

Empathy (F > M)

Answer 7

• Self-report: d = -.99
• Reflexive crying: d = -.27
• Picture story: d = -.10

Question 8

How you measure

Answer 8

Makes a difference. Self reports will reflect cultural norms. Others may not

Question 9

Aggression (M > F)

Answer 9

Physical aggression (largest effect size)

Murder (huge)

Violent crime (huge)

BUT…

Gossip & Rumors (no diff, maybe female advantage)

Slapping intimate partner (female advantage)

Question 10

Prosocial behavior (F > M)

Answer 10

Communal care & social support

Moral reasoning based on care and responsibility

Emotional expressiveness (facilitates emotional support)

Girls more helpful, esp. kindness and consideration

More sensitive emotional support

Empathy and sympathy

Nonverbal sensitivity

BUT….

No female advantage:

Bystander intervention—esp. when on-lookers present (power of norms/expectations)

No request made

Masculine skills required (changing tire)

Dangerous (Carnegie Hero Medals)

Saving people from drowning, fire, assault by criminal, animal
attack

But, organ donation, and peace corps (F>M),

risky but do not require tremendous physical strength

Question 11

Social role theory

Answer 11

• Social structure is the underlying force for gender differences
• Specifically, division of labor creates gender roles, which in turn, lead to gendered social behavior
• Various influences including child rearing and biology, lead males and females towards different roles—homemaker vs. breadwinner

• Expectations, skills and beliefs associated with these roles affect men and women’s behavior
– to conform to expectations about being male, boys manifest traits associated with agency (e.g., competitive)
– To conform to expectations about being female, girls manifest traits associated with care and nurturance

Question 12

2 causes (step 1)

Answer 12

Biology
-Strength and reproductive activities (etc)

Socialization
Cultural norms
child rearing

Question 13

These 2 causes in social role theory lead to

Answer 13

Division of labor between the sexes

Question 14

Division of labor between the sexes leads to

social role theory

Answer 14

Gender role expectations
(Via these processes people learn expectations of how genders should act)

Gender related skills and beliefs
(Repeatedly engaging in roles = acquire skills. Also begin to believe that these genders do these things)

Question 15

Gender role expectations and gender related skills lead to

in gender role theory

Answer 15

Sex differences in behavior

Question 16

Evolutionary Theory`

Answer 16

The reproduction and survival strategies for both sexes are different

Men: fast reproduction so traits that help them compete for females will be selected for

Women: long reproduction so traits that select for being choosy will be selected for

Natural selection shapes sex related behavioral differences and roles

Question 17

Social role theory summary

Answer 17

Biology and socialization
influences the roles people
play, and the roles we play
influence who we become

Question 18

Social role theory step 1

Answer 18

Observe behaviour

Such as men at work or women in the home

Question 19

Social role theory step 2

Answer 19

Form belief about attribute and underlying personality

“look at her, she is so caring”

“he is so competitive”

(This is the FAE)

Observe behavior
Form ideas about what that means for someone’s personality

Question 20

Social role theory step 3

Answer 20

Generalize to the group

Women=caring

Men =competitive

Question 21

Biosocial interaction

social role theory

Answer 21

• “Through socialization boys and girls learn to channel and respond to chemical signals, gender identities, and expectations of other’s in ways that enable them to carry out their everyday social roles”

• Testosterone
• Oxytocin

• How people construe social interaction (because of identity) elicits hormonal changes that enable them to perform relevant action/goal

Might have seen this before in the culture of honor study (rise in test after confrontation)

Question 22

Gender schema theory

Bem, 1981

Answer 22

Is a cognitive theory

• Sex typing
– Acquisition of sex-appropriate preferences, skills, personalities, behaviors, etc.

• Derives from gender schematic processing
– Readiness on the part of the child to encode and organize information— including info about the self—according to culture’s definitions of ‘maleness’
and ‘femaleness’
– Some information more easily assimilated into the self-concept than other
information
-If you are gender-schematic, you are more liekly to incorperate this info (such as your culture’s ideas about gender)

• Gender schema developed to process information on the basis of sex-linked associations
• cf. Self-schemata (enhances attention, processing and recall)

• Use gender relevant dimensions to develop self-concept, e.g., dominant,
nurturing, etc.

• Explains why big differences on self-report empathy but not task based
empathy

Question 23

Gender info is transmitted

Answer 23

via schema

Individual differences exist in how susceptible people are to this and so people differ in sex-typing

Largely driven by schematic processing

Question 24

Gender roles/schemata are (2 things)

Answer 24

(1) Descriptive

How should I act? Esp in uncertain situations

(2) Prescriptive

How should I act to gain acceptance and approval?

These both fulfil important psychological needs

Question 25

Gender and self-esteem Experiment Negative feedback on gender related domain

Answer 25

• We feel good about ourselves (self-esteem) when we live up to culturally mandated, gender-appropriate norms • Self concept formulated in relation to gender schemas – Men: separation and independence – Women: connection and interdependence SET UP Men and women recruited Self esteem level assessed (high/low) • Ps receive negative feedback in relevant domain – “high ability for: G1 independent G2 interdependent thinking” Given test results that showed they were low in one or other of these domains. Then told sometimes the test makes mistakes, how much do you think you will improve on this score if you do it again? RESULTS High SE Men told they were low in independence said they would perform better High SE women told they were low in interdependence said they would do better So the threat to a schematic part of their self schema caused them to resist and restore self-esteem only on the gender specific activity they were told they were bad at In both cases, the low SE people did not show any effect (they are used to having low self-esteem)

Question 26

Criticism about sex based theories

Answer 26

It describes and does not predict. It is useless to say " you are a man so you have high risk of x" It is better to work out what is causing those risk factors cos that provides targets

Question 27

Two basic modes of existence Communion

Answer 27

Concern for others Forming connections with others, being part of a larger social and spiritual entity Interpersonal, traditionally feminine traits (“warm” “cooperative”) Expressive Motives Intimacy, union, solidarity Agreeableness Providing for others Need for intimacy, trust and tenderness Facilitating group harmony

Question 28

Two basic modes of existence Agency

Answer 28

Concern for self Separating/differentiating the self from others Instrumental, traditionally masculine traits (“competitive”) Self-assertion Self-enhancement Self-promotion Need for mastery, power (which enhance and protect differentiation) Dominance

Question 29

Maleness ≅ Agency | Femaleness ≅ Communion

Answer 29

Division of labor ensures efficient functioning and ultimate survival Common goals of society (Redfield, 1960): Getting a living (A) Living together (C) Or,“getting ahead and getting along” (Hogan, Jones & Cheek, 1985) Males are larger, stronger, faster: hunt, protect, lead Females uniquely equipped to breed and suckle young: n rear children, prepare food, maintain household Hence over time the sexes may have orientated themselves towards one role as a way of being for the good of the individual and society

Question 30

Agency and Communion form

Answer 30

2 axis Unmitigated agency = high agency LOW COMMUNION Unmitigated communion = high communion LOW AGENCY It is the LACK of communion or agency that is the problem

Question 31

Unmitigated Agency

Answer 31

Focus on self to the exclusion of others • Manipulating others for selfish ends • Refusing and ordering others • Isolation, alienation & hostility This type of behavior is synergistic, by acting this way, such people alienate others and so isolate themselves more, then feel more isolated and more inclined to continue (viscous circle)

Question 32

Unmitigated communion

Answer 32

Focus on others to the exclusion of the self • Overly involved in others’ problems • Tolerating insults • Accepting verbal abuse • Repeatedly apologizing • Total submission, lack of self, masochism Synergistic (interactive) effect: Act is ways that increase likelihood of being taken advantage of, thereby increasing sense of submission and powerlessness which leads to more of this type of behavior

Question 33

Communion and well-being

Answer 33

LOW communion (C-) associated with: Alcohol use Aggression Less help seeking ``` Who is low on communion? Unmitigated agency (agency w/o communion) Focus on self to the exclusion of others ``` H1: Lack of communion may be a risk factor for problems that tend to show up in MEN (heart disease, accidents, acting out)

Question 34

Agency and well-being

Answer 34

* LOW Agency (A-) associated with: * Health complaints * Depression * Anxiety Who is someone who does not have much agency? – Unmitigated communion (communion w/o agency) – Those who are vulnerable to unmitigated communion, that correlates with health complaints, depression and anxiety – Consistent w/ link between women-depression H: Lack of AGENCY may be a risk factor for problems that tend to show up in WOMEN (depression, morbidity, etc.)

Question 35

Agency and communion Vs men and women

Answer 35

If we frame it like this, there are clinical targets to help people overcome agency issues

Question 36

Situational influences on gender differences in | agency & communion

Answer 36

Men and women Measured agentic and communal behaviors Did so by asking how people acted when interacting with (a) supervisors (b) supervisees (c) co-workers 20 days at work Agency: “I tried to get the other to do something else” n Communion: “I expressed affection” Test of social role theory: Compare supervisor and supervisee roles for men and women RESULTS People are less agentic when with supervisors More with co-workers And most with supervisees Shows how the situation dominates (and that it is the role than influences agency) Women were more communal at work overall and the people they interacted with had no effect but work pulls out agentic behaviour. This might have been different if it was done in a more communal setting.

Question 37

Changes in women’s assertiveness in response to status and roles over time

Answer 37

Social roles (can) change over time Cross temporal meta-analysis (1931-1993) -Take research and stratify by publication date Declines in assertiveness: 1946-67 Rises in assertiveness: 1967-93 Some recent studies show no sex difference

Question 38

Why did assertiveness change over time?

Answer 38

H: Assertiveness varies with status and social role Role > Self-Concept > Identity (so environment changes women's assertiveness) ALTERNATIVELY Women who are more assertive choose environments

Question 39

Social roles and women’s assertiveness over time Predictions

Answer 39

Social climate in 1970s e.g. age at first marriage college education participation in work force PREDICTED score of "assertiveness" in the 1980s BUT The assertiveness score in the 1980s DID NOT predict the social climate in the 1990s So evidence that the social environment when women are young girls predicts their assertiveness later but the average level of assertiveness in the 1980s did not predict the environment later

Question 40

Summary of findings for assertiveness over time

Answer 40

Assertiveness varies with status and social role University degrees obtained 10 years prior predict changes in assertiveness Current level of assertiveness associated with social climate during childhood Changing sociocultural environment can affect (women’s) personalities (e.g., social role theory)