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biological psychology > learning n memory > Flashcards

learning n memory Flashcards

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1
Q

LTP vs LTD

A

LTP - Long-term potentiation
strengthening of synapses that leads to long-lasting increase in signal transmission btwn neurons

LTD - Long-term depression
weakening of synapses that leads to long-lasting decrease in signal transmission btwn neurons

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2
Q

what are the 2 stages in early LTP?

A
  1. generation
    - expel mg2+ molecules that are blocking NMDA receptors
    - entrance of ca2+ leads to insertion of AMPA receptors
  2. stabilisation
    - ca2+ continues to increase in postsynaptic neuron
    - larger, stiffer dendritic spines, enhancing synaptic connectivity
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3
Q

what happens in late LTP?

A

maintenance - steady presence of protein kinase M zeta prevents AMPA receptor removal

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4
Q

in late LTP, what is the protein kinase involved, and what does it do?

A

protein kinase M zeta prevents AMPA receptor removal

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5
Q

what are 3 LTP properties?

A
  1. cooperativity
  2. associativity
  3. specificity
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6
Q

LTP can be artificially induced by which 2 methods?

A
  1. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS)
  2. Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS)
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7
Q

3 kinds of responses to the environment are?

A
  1. reflexes - involuntary
  2. fixed action patterns (instincts)
    - involuntary but more complex than reflexes
  3. learning
    - change in behavior due to experience
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8
Q

there are 2 different kinds of learning, ___________, split into ______________ and ______________, and ______________, which are ___________ and ________________.

A

associative; operant and classical conditioning

non-associative; habitual; sensitization

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9
Q

what is classical conditioning?

A

the learning that stimuli act as signals to predict the occurrence of other events

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10
Q

match to UCR, CR, UCS, CS.

  1. neutral envt event
  2. innate factors
  3. appears without prior exp with stimulus
  4. must be learned
A

UCR - appears without prior exp with stimulus

CR - must be learned

UCS - innate factors

CS - neutral envt event

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11
Q

CS and UCS interact by forming what kind of synapses? what does this kind of synapses do?

A

axo-axonic synapses increases the amount of neurotransmistter released by conditioned stimulus (CS)

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12
Q

where does classical conditioning occur?

A

cerebellum

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13
Q

__________ Cells: These are specialized neurons located in the ___________, a part of the brain that plays a key role in motor control and coordination.

A

purkinje; cerebellum

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14
Q

climbing fibers are considered ___________, and they are from the _________ of the __________ synapse on the ______________ cells.ndi

mossy and parallel fibers are considered the __________ in classical conditioning.

A

unconditioned stimulus (UCS); inferior olive; medulla; purkinje

conditioned stimulus (CS)

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15
Q

learning occurs if climbing fiber (UCS/CS/UCR/CR) and parallel fiber (UCS/CS/UCR/CR) synapses onto a purkinje cell are activated at the ______ time.

purkinje cells will __________ both inputs and ___________ the output of the ____________.

A

UCS; CS; same; integrate; modulate; conditioned response (CR)

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16
Q

can classical conditioning be reversed?

A

yes - extinction of classically conditioned response

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17
Q

exposure to _____ without subsequent _______ reduces _________.

A

CS; UCS; CR

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18
Q

do classically conditioned responses generalise outside the training situation? what about its extinction?

A

yes, classically conditioned responses will generalise outside training situation due to similar stimulus

no, extinction does not generalise, due to context and environments.

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19
Q

when does generalised extinction of CR occur?

A

when there is hippocampal lesions and the ability to recognise context is hindered

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20
Q

extinction does not generalise due to importance of context. which area of the brain manages context?

A

hippocampus

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21
Q

extinction doesnt mean forgetting.

extinction training strengthens the association between ____ and ________ instead of the _________.

A

CS; new context; UCS

eg.

Original Conditioning:
Initially, the CS (like a bell) is paired with the UCS (like food or a negative experience), creating a conditioned response (like salivation or fear).

During Extinction Training:
The CS is presented multiple times without the UCS. For example, the bell rings without food being given to the dog or the loud noise occurs without any negative consequences.

Formation of New Associations:
As this occurs, the organism starts to associate the CS with the new context (the environment where the extinction happens) instead of the UCS.

Contextual Learning:
This process allows the organism to learn that in this specific context, the CS no longer predicts the UCS. So, the anxiety or fear linked to the CS diminishes because the CS is now linked to a safe context.

22
Q

habituation vs sensitisation

A

habituation is the decrease in response to unchanging and harmless stimuli in your envt (eg. live near train station, habitualised to sound of trains)

sensitisation is the increase in response to a stimulus after a strong/noxious event in your envt. aka heightened response to stimuli that usually does not warrant such a strong response.

23
Q

2 key features of working memory

A
  1. limited capacity (small amt of info at any one time ~7+-2 items)
  2. manipulating info (while holding onto info, manipulate it by adding/applying concepts/mixing with other info etc)
24
Q

what is working memory?

A

storing + manipulating info in the mind at the same time (eg. solving a math problem)

25
Q

2 assessments of working memory.

A
  1. digits span backwards (1-2-3, 3-2-1)
  2. N-back test (N=2, ABAHG) (N=1, FJAOO) (N=3, KJGHJS)
26
Q

what are the 4 components of working memory, what is their mian function and where are they located?

A
  1. central executive (prefrontal cortex)
    - oversees activities of other components
  2. visuospatial scretchpad (occipital lobe)
    - holds and manages visual/spatial info
  3. phonological loop (broca’s & wernicke’s area)
    - holds and manages verbal/auditory info
  4. episodic buffer (parietal lobe)
    - perceptual processing
    - storage system
    - integrates info from several sources (eg. visuospatial sketchpad & phonological loop) to create unified memory
27
Q

which 2 brain components support the central executive in working memory?

A
  1. dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPC)
  2. anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
28
Q

On supporting central executive in working memory, the _______ is more involved in manipulating information, while the _____ helps with _______ processes.

Smaller activations accompany ____________, whereas larger activations are associated with complex ________ processing and decision-making tasks.

A

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC); anterior cingulate cortex (ACC); cognitive

maintenance rehearsals (simple repetition of information to prevent info from fading away for the short-term); semantic (meaning of words, phrases, and sentences)

29
Q

what is memory consolidation?

A

stabilisation of early memory

organisation of early memory into long-term storage

30
Q

is early memory stable? what does it go through then?

A

no. needs to go through memory consolidation to be stored in LTM.

31
Q

what is the transcription factor involved in memory consolidation called?

A

cAMP Response Element Binding Protein (CREB) transcription factor

32
Q

what is CREB? what is its role?

A

cAMP Response Element Binding Protein (CREB) transcription factor - involved in memory consolidation, activates genes responsible for formation of LTM

  • hippocampus is critical in forming new memories
  • amygdala is critical for emotional memories
33
Q

where is CREB produced?

A

expressed in the hippocampus and amygdala

34
Q

reduced expression of CREB impairs __________ but not ________.

A

ltm; stm

35
Q

stable/unstable

newly encoded memories are ________

consolidated memories are __________

stored memories being reactivated/recalled via reminder/retrieval are _____________

stored memories that have been reconsolidated are ___________

A

unstable

stable

unstable

stable

36
Q

what is reconsolidation of memories?

A

memories retrieved and then stored again, in an altered form

modifications include:
- stressors
- behavioral means
- pharmacological agents
- brain stimulation

37
Q

what is the process of reconsolidation of a memory? (5 steps)

A
  1. synapses are weakened when info is retrieved
  2. retrieval stimulates the same consolidation process in original learning
  3. retrieval creates active window in working memory making memory vulnerable to change
  4. reconsolidation updates memory with ongoing info
  5. strong, older memories less likely to be modified
38
Q

reconstructive memory comes from the fact that our memories are _________ at recording events exactly as they are. prior knowledge, misinformation and emotions can _________ our memories where we remember things that are not there, etc.

A

imperfect/faulty; distort

39
Q

false memory commonly studied using _______ paradigm.

Participants are presented with a list of words that are all related to a common theme (e.g., “bed,” “dream,” “sleep,” “tired,” etc.).

critical word that ties the theme together (e.g., “sleep”) is not included in the list.

participants asked to recall the words they heard or recognize a mix of words, including the original list and the critical word.

Participants frequently report recalling or recognizing the critical, unpresented word, demonstrating that their memory can be influenced by the relatedness of the presented items.

illustrates how our memory systems can fill in gaps with plausible information, leading to the creation of false memories.

A

deese/roediger-mcdermott (DRM)

40
Q

what is the common findings of the DRM paradigm? what does it illustrate?

A

Participants frequently report recalling or recognizing the critical, unpresented word, demonstrating that their memory can be influenced by the relatedness of the presented items.

illustrates how our memory systems can fill in gaps with plausible information, leading to the creation of false memories.

41
Q

what 2 areas of the brain are studied during the false memory fMRI study?

A

medial frontal gyrus - working mem to hold retrieve memory

inferior parietal lobe - familiarity-related processing

42
Q

episodic vs semantic memories

A

episodic - past experiences/events in your life

semantic - general concepts, knowledge about life

43
Q

is semantic/episodic memory more emotional?

A

episodic - past experiences/events in your life

semantic is just general knowledge about the world

44
Q

procedural memory involves the performance of tasks without conscious ___________ or past _________.

A

conscious recall or past exp

45
Q

__________ memory involves the performance of tasks without conscious recall or previous experiences.

A

procedural

46
Q

what is the role of the basal ganglia in procedural memory?

***procedural memory involves the performance of tasks without conscious recall or previous experiences.

A
  1. memory of motor patterns
  2. habit acquisition - learning of response sequences to specific stimuli
47
Q

reward signals in _______ pathways can enhance associatins between _____ and responses. what is responsible for evaluating emotional and reward-related outcomes of a procedure?

A

striatal; stimuli

nucleus accumbens

48
Q

stress can either impair or enhance memories. which of the below is enhance and which is impair? give brief reasons.

when stress coincides with learning -

when stress before learning -

A

(1) when stress coincides with learning - enhanced.

due to flashbulb memories (vivid and detailed). excitatory effects on norepinephrine, glucocorticoids on amygdala, hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex.

(2) when stress before learning - impaired.

due to slower effects of glucocorticoids on gene expression during refractory period (period of recovery after stress)

Norepinephrine: Stress increases norepinephrine levels, which can enhance attention and memory encoding, particularly in emotionally relevant situations.

Glucocorticoids (GC): Stress hormones like cortisol can influence brain regions involved in memory processing, such as the amygdala (for emotional memories) and the hippocampus (for memory formation).

Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), is involved in higher cognitive functions, including decision-making and working memory.

49
Q

what does repeated stress exposure do to amygdala?

A
  1. dendritic growth and spine formation in amygdala
  2. larger amygdala
  3. more sensitive/responsive to subsequent stressors
50
Q

what does repeated stress exposure do to hippocampus?

A
  1. atrophy of dendrites, less neurogenesis
  2. decrease in hippocampal volume
51
Q

what does repeated stress exposure do to medial prefrontal cortex?

A
  1. atrophy of dendrites and spines
  2. less responsive under stressful situations

biological psychology (9 decks)

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