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Language Flashcards

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1
Q

Why do psychologists study language?

A

Interested in how humans use and acquire language

to process information

to communicate

form their Perception because language and perception are inextricable

Neurologically modular

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2
Q

What does the study of linguistics consist of?

A

The hierarchical language structure including speech sounds, grammar and meanings

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3
Q

How is language processed?

A

languages is processed hierarchically from phonemes to complex sentences used to yield meaning

Phonemes form –> morphemes form —> phrases form –> sentences (sequence of organised words produced to convey thought or intention)

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4
Q

How many letters and phonemes are there in language? And how are they interrelated?

A

26 letters

45 phonemes

These are both combined to form the myriad of sentences used by humans to communicate

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5
Q

What are 3 components of linguistics?

A

Phonemes

Morphemes

Syntax

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6
Q

What is phonology?

A

The sound of language

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7
Q

What are phonemes?

A

smallest units of speech used to differentiate words. However, have no meaning

eg. The s and z distinction between s and Dogs

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8
Q

What is your speech dependent on?

A

Depends on the movement of our mouth.

The McGurk Effect : dub ‘ba’ into a video saying ‘ga’, it will produce ‘da’

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9
Q

What is morphology?

A

Study of words through morphemes

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10
Q

What is a morpheme? How would you distinguish morpheme from phoneme?

A

Phonemes are combined to form

Morphemes which are ‘the smallest units of meaning in language’ (burton, Westen, Kowalski, 2009, p. 323)

These include prefixes, suffixes, words

eg. house, -ing

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11
Q

Where are morphemes and phonemes stored in the human brain?

A

Morphemes and phonemes are some of the information in the human mental lexicon.

The lexicon is a knowledge of words shared by speakers of a language. The lexicon includes a word’s phonemic representation, morphological structure, and meaning

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12
Q

What are some features of the human mental lexicon?

A
  • The word frequency effect allows some words to be more accessible
  • Concepts and words are grouped in semantic categories
  • Semantically related words ‘activate’ each other so that you will be faster recognising semantically related words (e.g., bread/butter)
  • orthographic ‘neighbours’ are recognised more slowly
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13
Q

How does the lexicon raise new questions?

A

It is still unknown

how we access the lexiconNeurological correlates of the lexicon

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14
Q

What is syntax?

A

A set of phrase structure rules governing combination and placement of morphemes and phrases to generate a grammatically correct sentence

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15
Q

In what circumstances is syntax lacked? What does this suggest?

A

Telegraphic text that is semantically sound ‘need money, send Kristen now’

Children early language

This has lead to some arguing Comprehending language does not rely on formal syntactic rules such as in the case context is known however, others suggest it is necessary for meaning to be conveyed

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16
Q

What was the was the significance of works by Noam Chomsky?

A

Altered our perception of language use and acquisition

Universal theory that grammar describes abstract nature of languages not their surface characterstics

Distnguished deep and surface structure of language

language must be a generative and creative process based on transformational grammar

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17
Q

What does transformational grammar explain?

A

Notwithstanding the changes in linguistic form such as the structure of sentences, the same meaning is retained.

Sentences may be re-written in a variety of forms while maintaining their basic meaning

We are not relying solely on memory

Thus, language must be a generatie and creative process, rather than a process of imitation (this would additionally imply fantastic memory processes)

Eg. The child threw the ball . The ball was thrown by the child

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18
Q

What is semanatics?

How does it interact with syntax?

A

rules that govern meanings (rather than order) of morphemes, words, phrases and sentences to understand what people say

eg. date has multiple meanings

Understanding language relies on syntax (order of sentence) and semantics (meaning of words)

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19
Q

How is sign language similar to spoken language?

A

Contains syntax and is use to communicate

Uses the same grammar as spoken, supporting Chomsky’s theory of universal grammar in both spoken and signed language

Children as they learn to sign, make mistakes in sign language just as they would in spoken

Uses the left hemisphere

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20
Q

What is interesting about sign languages?

A

There can be accents in sign language

More than 5000 exist in the world

Supports that language is generative, a brain process, while memory plays a role, is not completely reliant

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21
Q

What are some language universals?

A

Semanticity: this yield meaning compared to sounds such as sneezing

Displacement: the tenses used such as past, present future give sense of time

Flexibility of symbols: arbitrary connection between words allows new words to be developed as society evolves eg. Ipod, download and alter meaning of older words such as text, web

**Productivity: infinite sentences being produced **

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22
Q

Language development:

What do as young as 1 month babies develop?

A

innate ability to distinguish between phonemes even before speaking

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23
Q

Language Development

What do 8 month infants develop?

A

They can hear words in speech streams

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24
Q

Language Development

During the prelinguistic stage, what occurs?

A

This is the time before an infant speaks

Prefer sound of language to other sounds

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25
Q

Language Development

Why do infants cry?

A

It is reflexive although after a few weeks

Able to make fake cries as a means of communicating

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26
Q

Children Language Development

What occurs during the babbling stage?

A

6-18 months old

First stage of language production by infants whereby familiar syllables and concrete words ( frequently repeated and easy to pronounce eg. Mamma, dada) are produced

1 year old, point at objects while uttering single word

Deaf children babble in sign language

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27
Q

Language Development

How much many words can be understood by infants between 8 and 18 months?

A

This expands in general from 40 to 200 words

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28
Q

Language Development

At what age can the toddler form words?

A

18 to 20 months old, toddler can create 2 word phrases.

Increase use of morphemes in their telegraphic speech (utters essential words but omits others)

Also articles, prepositions increase

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29
Q

Language Development

What happens when a child is 2 or 3?

A

Understand more syntax and begin to incorporate syntax in their language production through 2 or 3 word phrases and sentences

30
Q

Language Development

How does language develop during middle childhood?

A

Develop metalinguistic awareness (the nature of language)

Can start to appreciate jokes, riddles and puns (ever heard a knock-knock joke from a 5-yr old?)

31
Q

Language Development

How does language develop by age of 4 or 5?

A

Vocabulary expands to to over 2000 words following the exponential increase after first 50-100 words (Burton, Westen, Kowalski, 2009, p. 332)

Can produce and understood nearly all syntax

32
Q

Language Development

How does the ‘Learning Theory’ help children learn language?

A

Classical conditioning: Repeating to child, and child will make connection between the physical representation and sound. Strengthening connection between concept and bird

Shaping

**Imitation: **

33
Q

Language Development

What is telegraphic speech?

A

Young children use telegraphic speech to communicate. These utterances of essential words while omitting other parts of speech.

34
Q

Language Development

What is remarkable about language?

A

It’s generativity. One word can be used and heard in many different, unique sentences

It is an innate process

35
Q

Language Development

How does ‘Nativism’ help children learn language?

A

According to Chomsky and Pink due to generativity of language, children can create sentences in infinite ways which means children must have some level of language instinct (innate knowledge of language) .

36
Q

Language Development

According to Chomsky, what are humans born with?

A

language acquisition device which is an ‘innate set of neural structures for acquiring language’. (Burton, Westen, Kowalski, 2009, p. 327)

Born with ‘language instict’ , knowledge of universals of language a term coined by linguist Steven Pinker (1994)

37
Q

Language Development

What kind of environment is essential for normal language development?

A

An interactive environment

38
Q

Language Development

How do sensitive periods relate to language development by children?

A

During the sensitive period, Normally between 2-5, children are able to acquire language the fastest because their brain is more receptive to language during this short period.

Second language After after 3, is more difficult and near-native fluency may be impossible as the neural circuits in brain undertake other linguistic tasks rather than process the first language. Ideally, exposure to phonemes of second language up to age 3 will be needed for fluency in second language (Mcdonald, 1997)

Lack of linguistic input results to non-linguistic representations formed in cortical areas

39
Q

Neurolinguistics

Language and the brain

Which psychologists made a milestone and what did they discover?

A

Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke discovered specific parts of the brain were responsible for language processing in the 19th century

40
Q

Describe Paul Broca’s autopsy on Tan

A

Broca undertook an autopsy on a man who had been mute for the past 20 years, called Tan.

While Tan could understand language, his only ever response would be the repetition of the single syllable word “tan” twice accompanied with communicative bodily gestures

It was found he had severe damage to the inferior left pre-frontal cortex–

Tan was the first clue for the localisation of language function in the brain, known as Broca’s Area

41
Q

How did Tan’s damage on his left frontal cortex influence Broca’s study on subsequent patients?

A

Subsequent patients who also had impairment or damage to the inferior left pre-frontal cortex experienced the same lack fluency in verbal speech yet still understood speech

This brain impairment is known as Broca’s Aphasia

42
Q

Features of Broca’s Aphasia

A
  • –Speech is agrammatical
  • -Speech is effortful, telegraphic, sparse, repetitive
  • –Comprehension is maintained
  • -Became known as a problem in the production of language
43
Q

What were the works of Carl Wernicke?

A

Patients who could not comprehend language but could produce speech effortlesly had

–left poster, temporal lobe, mid temporal gyrus.

Now known as Wernicke’s area

44
Q

•Characteristics of Wernicke’s aphasia:

A

–Language production is maintained

Language is fluent and effortless

However, it appears to be devoid of meaning

45
Q

What is an aphasia?

A

Aphasia patients perceive relevant stimuli however, are impaired or have no ability to comprehend and/or produce language

46
Q

Lateralization of Language

Does the left hemisphere also process and manage language the same way for deaf people?

A

In deaf people the cortical areas devoted to sign language are the same as for spoken languages

Therefore, the regions of the brain devoted to language are specialised for symbolic representation and communication (sign language)

47
Q

What did the split brain research exhibit?

A

Due to the lack of communication between the two hemispheres, verbal report of perceived stimuli by patient was not possible

The stimuli on the left visual field projected to right hemisphere. since the right hemisphere cannot communicate with the left, the left hemisphere cannot report it saw the stimuli

48
Q

What judgements can split brain patients make?

A

Semantic, logical judgements and thoughts

Hard for them to understand pragmatics: sarcasm, humour , metaphor

49
Q

What is global aphasia

A

Massive damage to the language system•

50
Q

what is anomic aphasia?

A

Problems in finding the appropriate words in speech

51
Q

Our language comprehension is predicated upon?

A

top-down processes

i.e. Context of the language being used whether that be the preceding or subsequent context

52
Q

What is majority of language used in?

A

everyday conversation

53
Q

what is pragmatics of language? what occurs one has pragmatic competence?

A

–Pragmatics of language studies how language is used and understood on an everyday basis through conversational rules.

–To have Pragmatic competence one can distinguish between sentence and speaker meaning

54
Q

Pragmatics

Conversational rules. What do they refer to?

A

Structure of conversation

55
Q

Pragmatics

Conversation Rules:

What are some conversation rules?

What influences conversation rules?

A

Take turns to speak. Current speaker selects next speaker such as by asking question, or other signals

Cooperative principal: assumed that rules are complied and sincere contribution to conversation by parties eg. when sarcasm is used, this infringes this principle because the sentence structure does not equate to sentence meaning

**Topic maintenance: **contribution to conversation apposite to subject, does not go off tangent or digress

violation be intentional (lack interest) or unintentional (not understood)

**Online Theories: **

theory on what the conversation partner knows or is interested in

theory conversation partner thinks about the other contributor in conversation

Social roles can influence conversation rules

56
Q

Pragmatics and neuroscience

Describe a pragmatic disorder

A

Semantic-pragmatic disorder occurs when there is damage to the right hemisphere lesions

features include

abnormal prosody (the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry)

cannot understand humour, metaphor, sarcasm

57
Q

What is the verbal overshadowing effect?

Give an example

A

Verbal description can distort memory. This was deduced by experiments

Eg. - Description of wine after tasting (does not apply to wine experts)

  • voice (giving verbal description of voice after hearing it)
  • colour
  • Witnesses have found it difficult to give verbal description of suspect following the event
58
Q

What can explain the verbal overshadowing effect?

A

As one gives a verbal description, their memory is accessed to find words relevant for the description.

However, because they are describing verbally, there is a transition from perceptual to verbal focus, in turn hindering one’s accessibility to their perceptual memories.

59
Q

How did language originate?

A

The origins of language is unknown. There is an assumption that language evolved from expressive gestures otherwise known as the body language

60
Q

Describe the importance of gestures in language?

A

innate hand gestures made during speech stimulates Broca’s Area in LH commonly activated by listening to speech

Gesture, being a motor activity suggests the motor system is linked to languaging processing areas of brain

  • assist with finding what to say
61
Q

Gestures

What are mirror neurons?

A

By imitiating an action, Broca’s Area is activiated before the motor cortex

Occurs to imitator and imitatee as well as watching hand movements

62
Q

Which animal used gestures?

A

Using gestures is a reflexive action for apes

63
Q

what are features of bilingual people?

A

speak another language in the same fluency as their native language

64
Q

Does language shape thought?

A

Yes according to whorfian hypothesis of linguistic relativity, language constructs and influences thoughts and one perceives world. Conversely, thought shapes language

65
Q

Does communication rely solely on syntactic rules?

A

Communication does not rely solely on syntactic rules of sentence strcture but conversation rules known by participants

eg. important information in writing is communicated through topic sentence. Intonation in speech, voice tone

Non verbal communication cues include body language, facial expression, gesture

66
Q

How does non verbal communication influence language learning?

A

An example is a child who learns a new word by looking at the gaze of speaker while the speaker calls out the word

This is in exception of autistic children who do not follow gaze of speaker but attach word with object in their gaze

67
Q

What part of the brain process language?

What does this suggest

How about at birth?

A

Left frontal lobe processes grammar

Left temporal lobe processes semantics (word meaning)

use of syntactic rules and semantics are innate

At birth, the language areas situated in left cortex is larger than right hemisphere. These neurons in left hemisphere are more responsive to speech sounds than that of right (Stromswold, 1995).

68
Q

How are dyxlexic people different from others?

A

Do not differ intellectually but they may feel incompetent from their disorder

69
Q

What happens when a child is not exposed to second language at a young age?

A

Nowhere near as fluent as native language in terms of effortlessness and quickly producing words.This is because neural circuit to process language is different to native speakers

if an adult learns a second language, may develop an accent.

70
Q

Give a case study of a child who was not exposed to language at an early age

A

Neuron connections and normal lateralization of language functions will disappear

Genie who was 13 when found by authorities being raised in social deprivation. She was tied to a chair in her room since 20 months and her abusive father only ever communicated through shouting occassionally.

She did not have lateralization in left hemisphere for language, explaining why she could not produce sentences beyond ‘genie go’. Her intellectual and social abilities expanded in a few years but this stabibilised and she became socially awkard in her adult years.

Her vocabularly was sound and she did learnt to combine words into phrases but her syntax never reached normal levels.

71
Q

What are ways to facilitate language development in children?

A

Speaking ‘Motherese’ by using a high pitch, slow pace and exaggerated intonation (Burton, Westen, Kowalski, 2009, p. 332)

Repetition by parents and adding new information

If the parents just acknowledge, syntax development is delayed (Burton, WEsten, Kowalski, 2009, p.332)

Psychology (22 decks)

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