Lab Practical 3 Flashcards
What makes up the urinary trigone? Why do infections tend to persist in this region?
2 ureteric orifices & internal urethral orifice
-because of openings for ureters and urethra entry point for bacteria
What does the rugae in the urinary bladder allow for? Which is allowed by which cells?
distensibility, transitional epithelial cells
What is the muscle around the urinary bladder called? What does it do?
- muscle around bladder
- collapses urinary bladder to void
What muscle is the internal and external urethral sphincter made of? How does voiding happen? What is it called? What is it called when one cannot control it? What can cause it?
internal = smooth
external = skeletal
micturition occurs when internal, external urethral sphincter relax and detrusor contracts
incontinence due to spinal chord injuries or urinary tract pathology
What is the function of the kidney? Where specifically is it balanced? In simple terms, what is the process? Hence, ___ indicates a kidney problem.
- balance water and electrolytes in the cortex
- unbalanced blood goes in and comes back balanced
- urine in blood or blood in urine
What is the flow of blood from the renal artery to the vena cava? (11)
renal artery > segmental artery > interlobar artery > arcuate artery > cortical radiate artery > NEPHRON > cortical radiate vein > arcuate vein > interloabr vein > renal vein > vena cava
Why is there no segmental vein in the kidney?
not enough pressure to keep the blood going in different paths
What makes it have the striated appearance? Where does it merge? (which goes through this pathway)
striated due to collecting ducts
merges at renal column > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter
What is the working unit of a kidney called? It is uni/multicellular?
nephron, muliticellular
What is the flow of filtrate from nephron to ureter?
nephron > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urethra
What does urine contain? (4) Hence, what 2 tests are used?
water, salt, hormones (hence pregnancy tests), anything body cannot use/breakdown (drugs, hence drug tests)
What tissue surrounds the kidney? What type? Why? (2)
fibrous capsule - thick CT so fluid doesnt spill out; prevent spread of infection to kidney
Trace the flow of filtrate from the periubular capillaries to the bladder. Where does deoxygenated blood go?
peritubular capillaries > proximal convoluted tube > descending limb > ascending limb > distal convoluted tubule > collecting duct > renal column > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ueter > bladder
-meanwhile the deoxygenated blood in the efferent arterials goes to the peritubular capillaries goes to the cortical radiate vein and … to the vena cava
What wraps around the convoluted tubules in the cortical nephron? What does this allow for?
peritubular capillaries allow for multiple opprotunities to push salt back into the bloodstream (reabsorption) or push more into the renal tubule (secretion)
What 2 structures make up the renal corpuscle?
glomerulus (capillaries) & glomerular/bowman’s capscle
What are the 2 major types of nephrons? Which one is closer to the cortex-medulla junction with the nephron loop going into the medulla?
cortical nephron
juxtamedullary nephron closer to medulla
What type of urine is the juxtamedullarly nephron responsible for handling? What is the special structure about this nephron and why? For both cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons, what does the ascending loop deal with? Descending?
*what do descending limbs have?
- concentrated urine
- has a net of capillaries called vasa recta because nephron look so long
- ascending = salts
- descending = water, lots of aquaporins
Why is urine darker in the morning?
not as hydrated
What are the 3 processes a nephron does? Hence, what does the kidney do as an overall process?
- glomerular filtration - high pressure pushes substances like salt into bowmans
- Tubular reabsorption - Kidney to blood stream
- Tubular secretion - Blood stream to kidney tube
-kidney dumps everything into bowmans capsule and be selective about what to put back
What are the teeth of comes called? What do they do? What do they pass through?
filtration slits only allows small things like salt through, no RBC
-small molec like water, aa, glucose, nitrogenous waste
In the juxtaglomerular complex (JGC)
What do the macula densa cells do? What do the granular cells do? (2) What does the extraglomerular mesangial cells do?
What happens when there is a lot of salt? When there is less salt?
- macula densa = picks up on the amount of salt in the distal convoluted tubule
- granular cells = senses blood pressure; regulate the constriction/dilation of afferent arteriole
- extraglomerular mesangial cells = pass signals between the macula densa and granular cells
- lots of salt in blood (too much pressure) = granular cells widens artery so not as much hydrostatic pressure & reduces amount of salt being pushed out because so much salt is already there
- less salt = arteries constrict to pull more salt
What does a high salt volume in blood mean? (3)
- dehydrated, not enough water in body
- too much salt eaten
- kidney not working right
Why is it important for the kidney to keep functioning correctly?
electrolyte imbalances mean AP not fired correctly, which means heart not pumping correctly
What are kidney stones? Where do we see them? (3) What happens?
- wet salts
- see in collecting duct or ureter or urethra
- fluid gets backed up in the kidney so salts not taken out of blood, throwing the balance system out of whack
PhysioX Acid-Base Activity 1
the normal range for pH is between ___. When it is higher than the range it is called ___. When it is lower than the range, it is called ___.
the normal PCO2 is between ___
Respiratory alkalosis is when blood CO2 is high/low. *It can be caused by. ___ (4) How does the renal system compensate?
pH = 7.35-7.45
high pH = alkalosis ; low pH = acidosis
pCO2 = 35-45 mm Hg
high PCO2 = acidosis ; low PCO2 = alkalosis
CO2 low
- caused by hyperventilation (breathing rate/depth increased so breathing out CO2 which decreases H+; fever/panic attack, anxiety) or traveling to higher altitude
- renal system retains H+ and excretes HCO3-
hyperventilation increased pH
PhysioX Exercise 10 Activity 2
Respiratory acidosis is a result of ___. *Some causes include (5).
What does it do to CO2 and H+ in the blood? the pH?
How does the renal system compensate?
- result of hypoventilation
- causes = airway obstruction, depression respiratory center, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, rebreathing (into a bag)
- CO2 increases, shifts equation to the R with increase H+, decreasing pH
- renal system excretes H+ and retains HCO3-
PhysioX Exercise 10 Activity 4
Respiratory alkalosis or acidosis is overcome by ___, which is the regulation/secretion of ___.
What happened to the concentration of H+ and HCO3- ions in the urine when PCO2 was lowered? Increased PCO2? Both simulated ___ (respiratory acidosis/alkalosis).
-overcome with renal compensation (which is the regulation of excretion of H+ and HCO3-
- decreased PCO2 = urine H+ decreased, HCO3- increased (alkalosis)
- increased PCO2 = urine H+ increased, HCO3- decreased (acidosis)
What are some causes of metabolic acidosis? (5)
- ketoacidosis (from diabetes)
- ingestion alcohol (metabolizes into acetic acid)
- strenuous exercise (increase lactic acid)
- salicylate poisoning (ingestion too much aspirin or oil of wintergreen)
- diarrhea (loss bicarbonate)
What are some causes of metabolic alkalosis (3)?
- ingestion of alkali (like antacids or bicarbonate)
- vomiting (loss H+)
- constipation (increase absorption HCO3-)
PhysioX Exercise 10 Activity 4
An increase in metabolic rate causes increase/decrease in CO2. This increase/decrease H+ in blood and causes acidosis/alkalosis. and vice versa ___.
*What can affect rate of cell metabolism? Increase (3) decrease (2)
What happened to breathing rate, H+, HCO3-, pH when met rate increased? Why?
What happened to breathing rate when metabolic rate was decreased? Why? What happened to H+, HCO3-, and pH?
- more metabolism = more CO2 produced as waste, which increases H+ and results in acidosis
- less metabolism = less CO2 produced which decreases H+, increasing pH
- increase = fever, stress, ingestion food
- decrease = lower body temperature, decrease in food intake
- increase met rate = breaths per min and tidal vol increased because need to expel more CO2
- increased H due to increased PCO2 and decreased HCO3-
- decreased pH
- decrease met rate = decrease breaths per minute; because less CO2 needed to expel
- H+ decreased
- pH and HCO3- increased
PhysioX Exercise 9 Activity 1
What are the 2 components to a nephron? What are their functions? How is fluid forced into the bowmans capsule? Bowans does not allow for ___ through (3)
What happens to the GFR when afferent arteriole radius increase?
What happens to the pressure/GFR/volume of urine if you decrease afferent radius?
What happens to the pressure/GFR/volume of urine flowing into the urinary bladder if you decrease the efferent radius?
What happens to pressure/GFR/volume urine if you increase efferent radius?
- nephron = renal tubule + renal corpuscle
- glomerulus = filters fluid
- renal tubule = process filtered fluid (filtrate) - absorb nutrients & secrete waste
- diameter for efferent arteriole smaller than efferent, which forces fluid out
- does not let RBC, WBC, proteins through
- increase afferent radius = pressure/GFR/urine volume (increase SA)
- decrease afferent radius = pressure/GFR/urine vol decrease
- decrease efferent radius = pressure/GFR/urine volume increase (squeezing it out)
- increase efferent radius = pressure/GFR/volume decrease
PhysioX Activity 9 Exercise 2
*___ drives fluid between glomerular capillaries and filtrate in Bowmans capsule.
What happened to glomerular capillary pressure/GFR/urine output as BP increased?
What happened to the filtrate pressure in Bowman’s capsule and GFR when the valve between the collecting duct & urinary bladder was closed?
starling forces (hydrostatic & osmotic gradients)
- increase BP = increase glomerular capillary pressure/GFR/urine output
- close valve = increase glomerular capillary pressure/decrease GFR (because urine cannot be excreted)
PhysioX Exercise 9 Activity 3
True or false - GFR remains relatively constant despite fluctuating blood pressure
How could you adjust the afferent or efferent radius to compensate for the effect of reduced blood pressure on the glomerular filtration rate?
Which arteriole radius adjustment was more effective at compensating for the effect of low blood pressure on the glomerular filtration rate?
If the efferent arteriole radius decreases in response to a decrease in blood pressure, the glomerular filtration
Comparing the glomerular filtration rate and glomerular capillary pressure with the baseline values (from the first run), how effective was the decreased efferent arteriole radius in compensating for the low blood pressure?
true
- Dilate the afferent arteriole and constrict the efferent arteriole.
- afferent arteriole adjustment was more effective
- GFR remains approximately the same
- The efferent arteriole constriction improved the low glomerularcapillary pressure and filtration rate marginally.
PhysioX Exercise 9 Activity 5
Glucose is easily filtered out into the Bowmans capsule. To ensure reabsorption, ___ are present in the * ___. It undergoes ___ at the ___ membrane and ___ at the ___ membrane*. What happens when the limited number of glucose carriers are bound with glucose? Renal processing of plasma glucose does not involve ___. Why does glucose appear in the urine of untreated diabetic patients?
What happened to concentration of glucose in urine as glucose carriers increased?
- glucose carrier proteins present in the PCT
- secondary active transport at the apical membrane of PCT
- facilitated diffusion along basolateral membrane
- excess secreted as urine (when too much glucose)
- does not involve secretion
- An excessive amount of glucose is present in their filtrate
-increase glucose carriers = decreased glucose in urine (reabsorbed)
The ___ duct closes off the gland during urination.
ejaculatory duct
The ductus deferens is ___ epithelium.
cuboidal
The root of the penis is in the internal/outer part of the body.
internal
As men age, their ___ swells to constrict the ___, causing benign prostatic hyperplasia. This creates a consistent feel the need to void.
prostate swells to constrict prostatic urethra
What does the the seminal (2), prostate, and blubo-urethral glands produce (2), and how does it help the sperm?
Color? alkaline/acidic? what does it contain? what does it do for the sperm?
seminal
- yellow, alkaline solution
- fructose & citric acid that nourish sperm
- prostaglandins that enhance mobility
prostate
-milky, acidic fluid with citric acid, enzymes, PSA that activates sperm
bulbo-urethral
- clear, allkaline mucus
- lubricates tip of penis
- neutralizes acidic urine
___ gland contributes the largest volume to the semen
seminal
What color is the secretion from the seminal gland? Is it alkaline/acidic? What does it contain? How does it help the sperm?
- thick yellow, alkaline solution
- containing fructose & citric acid for nourishment sperm
- prostaglandins for sperm motility
What color is the secretion from the prostate? Is it alkaline/acidic? What does it contain? How does it help the sperm?
- milky, acidic
- citric acid, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), enzymes for sperm activation
What color is the secretion from the bulbo-urethral glands? Is it alkaline/acidic? What is its functions (2)?
- clear alkaline mucous
- lubricates tip of penis for copulation
- neutralizes acidic urine
What is semen?
secretion from seminal, prostate, bulbo-urethral glands + sperm
where sperm produced? what cells are they made of?
seminiferous tubule made of spermatogenic cells
What is spermatogenesis? Where does it happen? What is the stem cell called? At puberty, each mitotic division produces ___ & ___. what are the products of meiosis I? Meiosis II? They are diploid/haploid. In a process called ___, ____ is stripped away from the spermatids to form sperm.
- meiosis 1 and 2 for male reproduction
- spermatogenic cells of seminiferous tubule of the testes
- spermatogonia
- each mitotic division produces primary spermatocyte & spermatogonium
- meiosis I = secondary spermatocytes
- meiosis II = early spermatids (hapolid products)
- spermiogenesis strips away cytoplasm to form sperm
What do interstitial endocrine cells do? what are they activated by?
- secrete testosterone to direct spermatogenesis
- turned on by the anterior pituitary that makes LH (sperm also has follicles!)
Sperm matures every ___ days.
35-40
True or False
Sperm production/maturation happens until you die,
true
True or false
testosterone levels drop as we age
true
These 2 structures are CT that surrounds and protects lobule of the testes
tunica albuginea & vaginalis
Do sperm at the lumen of seminiferous tubule reproduce?
no they are immature
What is the pathway of sperm travel in the testes?
Seminiferous tubules → Straight tubule → rete testis → Efferent ductules → Epididymis → ductus deferens → spermatic cord → ejaculatory duct → urethra
portion of the testis where blood vessels and sperm pass through
spermatic cord
___ of the ____ allow for blood to accumulate in the penis
venous cavities of the corpora cavernosa
testicular cancer is in the ___
epidydimis
Younger develop ___ older develop ___ cancer
younger = testicular older = prostate
When a male goes through puberty, it takes about ___ year(s) for sperm production to become regular
1 year
How do the nervous system, temperature, nutrients, and water affect spermatogenesis?
more adrenaline/stress, higher temperature, malnourishment, dehydration = less sperm produced
muscle that regulates temperature for mitosis for spermatogenesis
cremaster muscle
Sperm only has these 3 structures. Hence, they are tiny
mitochondria & genetic material, flagella
Where is the site of oogenesis?
ovary
True or false
There is a physical connection between the fallopian tube and ovary
false
How does the egg move from the ovary and into the fallopian tube?
fimbriae pulsate and creates a pull that sucks the ovary into the infundibulum
where ovarian blood vessels are located? what is another function of the structure?
broad ligament, support
Why does oogenesis result in one cell with most of the mass of original and another with just split off chromosome (polar body)?
need cytoplasm with all nutrients and organelles to sustain life
why do females get adipose tissue around their uterus?
protect against chemicals
Of the 3 layers of the uterine wall, which one is the thickest? what is it used for? (2)
myometrium, holds growing baby & contracts during childbirth to push baby out
Which layer of the uterine wall sheds during menstrual cycle?
endometrium
trace the pathway of milk
alveoli > lactiferous duct > lactiferous sinus > opening of lactiferous duct
when does spermatogenesis begin?
at puberty
before puberty, all mitotic divisions produce more of which stage of the sperm?
spermatogonia
this hormone begins spermatogenesis at puberty
FSH
are spermatids functional?
no
immature ovums develop in a ___ encased by ___ (one layer), ___ (2 layers)
develops in a follicle encased by pre-granulosa (one layer) or granulosa cells (2+ layers)
what is oogenesis? where does it occur? what are the stem cells called? before puberty, they are ___ oocyte which are at the ___ stage of meiosis I. At puberty ___ hormone begins the maturation process every ___ days and develops into a ___ oocyte.
- female gamete production
- occurs in ovary
- stem cells = oogonia
- before puberty primary oocytes, prophase of meiosis I
- FSH triggers maturation cycle of every 28 days
- develops into secondary oocyte
true or false
at birth females have their lifetime supply of oocytes
true
in a male, meiosis produces ___ functional gametes but ___ in females
males = 4 females = 1
true or false
unlike females, males do not have nutrients in their cytoplasm, therefore the semen nutrients are essential
true
true or false
all organelles of the zygote are provided by the egg
true
- at birth, ___ follicles are present and contain ___ oocytes arrested in ____.
- Throughout life thru menopause, ___ follicles develop into ___ follicles containing ___. Before puberty they under ___.
- After puberty, ___ follicles become ___ follicles. ___ oocytes complete ___ and develop into ___ oocytes arrested in ___. The oocyte is ejected during ovulation and the follicle becomes ___.
- Upon fertilization, ___ is completed and develops into an ___.
- at birth, primordial follicles with primary oocytes arrested in prophase 1
- throughout life and until menopause, primordial follicles develop into secondary follicles containing primary oocytes. Before puberty, they undergo atresia
- After pubterty, secondary follicles become vesicular follicles. Primary oocytes complete meiosis I and become secondary oocytes (release polar body) arrested in metaphase 2. Follicle becomes corpus luteum.
- Upon fertilization, meiosis 2 completed and develops into ovum.
when oocytes undergo meiosis, they produce a polar body. what is it?
split half of chromosome
list the stages of follicle development
primordial follicle > primary follicle > secondary follicle > late secondary follicle > vesicular follicle > corpus luteum
list the stages of meitosis in a female
oogonium > primary oocyte > secondary oocyte + polar body > ovum + polar body
list the stages of spermatogenesis
spermatogonium > primary spermatocyte > secondary spermatocyte > spermatids > sperm
___ > ___ is meiosis 1
___ > ___ is meiosis 2
primary > secondary ooctye/spermatocyte is meiosis 1
secondary oocyte/spermatocyte > spermatid/ovum is meiosis 2
During ovulation a spike in ___ hormone cause spike in these 2 hormones.
spike in estrogen = spike in FSH, LH
estrogen an progesterone increase and peak during the secretory phase when ___ is formed
corpus luteum
menstrual + proliferative phase = ___ stage of ovarian cycle
secretory phase = ___ stage
menstrual + proliferative phase = follicular stage
secretory phase = luteal stage
estrogen and progesterone increases and decreases during the ___ stage of the uterine phases and ___ stage of the ovarian phases.
secretory of uterine
leutal of ovarian
what happens to the lining of the endometrium in the menstrual, proliferative, and secretory phases of the uterine cycle?
menstrual = endometrium sheds proliferative = endometrium rebuilt secretory = enrichment of blood supply & glandular secretion of nutrients to receive an embryo
illustrate the gonadotropin levels, ovarian phase, plasma hormone levels, uterine phases
Identify the organ. What are the red and white circles?
Kidney
Red = glomerulus
White = bowman’s capsule
Identify the tissue. What cell is it made of? What is in the triangle area? What hormone does it produce? What is in the lumen?
seminiferous tubules of the Testes made of spermatogenic cells
Triangle = interstitial endocrine cells that produce testosterone
Lumen = immature sperm
Identify the tissue
Epididymis
Identify the tissue. What cells make up the outside? Inside? What is in the lumen?
Identify the tissue. What is the big opening? What structure surrounds it? What is the structure at the top?
Penis
Name the tissue. What are its 3 parts?
Identify
Primary follicle
Identify
Secondary follicle
Identify
Late secondary follicle
Identify
What is the clear space?
what is the light purple space?
Vesicular follicle
antrum
zona pellucida
Identify
Corpus luteum
Identify
Vesicular follicle
Identify the tissue. What is the clear part in the middle? What is the border around it? What covers it? what is the zig zag?
uterine tube
outside perimeter = serosa
zig zag = highly folded mucosa
Identify purple part
Perimetrium
Identify the bottom
Myometrium
Identify
Endometrium
what are the ovarian phases
follicular, ovulation (day 14), luteal
what are the uterine phases
menstrual, proliferative, secretory
true or false
spermatids are nonmotile
true
What are the major regions of the sperm?
Head - genetic region; nucleus and helmetlike acrosome containing hydrolytic enzymes that enable sperm to penetrate egg
Midpiece - metabolic region; mitochondria 🡪 ATP to move tail
Tail - locomotor region; flagellum
what is the function of the endometrium
helps promote development of fertilized egg
antrum forms in the ___ follicle
vesicular
the ___ secretes progesterone and estrogen during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle
corpus lutem
what happens to the corpus luteum if pregnancy occurs?
produces hormones that sustain pregnancy until placenta takes over at about 3 months
what is the function of FSH in males and females?
what is the function of LH in males and females
FSH
- sperm production
- ovarian follicle development & estrogen production
LH
males - testosterone production
females - ovulation & ovarian production of estrogen & progesterone
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