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Anatomy & Physiology 2 > Lab Practical 3 > Flashcards

Lab Practical 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What makes up the urinary trigone? Why do infections tend to persist in this region?

A

2 ureteric orifices & internal urethral orifice

-because of openings for ureters and urethra entry point for bacteria

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2
Q

What does the rugae in the urinary bladder allow for? Which is allowed by which cells?

A

distensibility, transitional epithelial cells

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3
Q

What is the muscle around the urinary bladder called? What does it do?

A
  • muscle around bladder

- collapses urinary bladder to void

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4
Q

What muscle is the internal and external urethral sphincter made of? How does voiding happen? What is it called? What is it called when one cannot control it? What can cause it?

A

internal = smooth
external = skeletal
micturition occurs when internal, external urethral sphincter relax and detrusor contracts
incontinence due to spinal chord injuries or urinary tract pathology

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5
Q

What is the function of the kidney? Where specifically is it balanced? In simple terms, what is the process? Hence, ___ indicates a kidney problem.

A
  • balance water and electrolytes in the cortex
  • unbalanced blood goes in and comes back balanced
  • urine in blood or blood in urine
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6
Q

What is the flow of blood from the renal artery to the vena cava? (11)

A

renal artery > segmental artery > interlobar artery > arcuate artery > cortical radiate artery > NEPHRON > cortical radiate vein > arcuate vein > interloabr vein > renal vein > vena cava

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7
Q

Why is there no segmental vein in the kidney?

A

not enough pressure to keep the blood going in different paths

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8
Q

What makes it have the striated appearance? Where does it merge? (which goes through this pathway)

A

striated due to collecting ducts

merges at renal column > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter

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9
Q

What is the working unit of a kidney called? It is uni/multicellular?

A

nephron, muliticellular

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10
Q

What is the flow of filtrate from nephron to ureter?

A

nephron > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urethra

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11
Q

What does urine contain? (4) Hence, what 2 tests are used?

A

water, salt, hormones (hence pregnancy tests), anything body cannot use/breakdown (drugs, hence drug tests)

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12
Q

What tissue surrounds the kidney? What type? Why? (2)

A

fibrous capsule - thick CT so fluid doesnt spill out; prevent spread of infection to kidney

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13
Q

Trace the flow of filtrate from the periubular capillaries to the bladder. Where does deoxygenated blood go?

A

peritubular capillaries > proximal convoluted tube > descending limb > ascending limb > distal convoluted tubule > collecting duct > renal column > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ueter > bladder

-meanwhile the deoxygenated blood in the efferent arterials goes to the peritubular capillaries goes to the cortical radiate vein and … to the vena cava

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14
Q

What wraps around the convoluted tubules in the cortical nephron? What does this allow for?

A

peritubular capillaries allow for multiple opprotunities to push salt back into the bloodstream (reabsorption) or push more into the renal tubule (secretion)

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15
Q

What 2 structures make up the renal corpuscle?

A

glomerulus (capillaries) & glomerular/bowman’s capscle

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16
Q

What are the 2 major types of nephrons? Which one is closer to the cortex-medulla junction with the nephron loop going into the medulla?

A

cortical nephron

juxtamedullary nephron closer to medulla

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17
Q

What type of urine is the juxtamedullarly nephron responsible for handling? What is the special structure about this nephron and why? For both cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons, what does the ascending loop deal with? Descending?

*what do descending limbs have?

A
  • concentrated urine
  • has a net of capillaries called vasa recta because nephron look so long
  • ascending = salts
  • descending = water, lots of aquaporins
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18
Q

Why is urine darker in the morning?

A

not as hydrated

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19
Q

What are the 3 processes a nephron does? Hence, what does the kidney do as an overall process?

A
  1. glomerular filtration - high pressure pushes substances like salt into bowmans
  2. Tubular reabsorption - Kidney to blood stream
  3. Tubular secretion - Blood stream to kidney tube

-kidney dumps everything into bowmans capsule and be selective about what to put back

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20
Q

What are the teeth of comes called? What do they do? What do they pass through?

A

filtration slits only allows small things like salt through, no RBC
-small molec like water, aa, glucose, nitrogenous waste

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21
Q

In the juxtaglomerular complex (JGC)

What do the macula densa cells do? What do the granular cells do? (2) What does the extraglomerular mesangial cells do?

What happens when there is a lot of salt? When there is less salt?

A
  • macula densa = picks up on the amount of salt in the distal convoluted tubule
  • granular cells = senses blood pressure; regulate the constriction/dilation of afferent arteriole
  • extraglomerular mesangial cells = pass signals between the macula densa and granular cells
  • lots of salt in blood (too much pressure) = granular cells widens artery so not as much hydrostatic pressure & reduces amount of salt being pushed out because so much salt is already there
  • less salt = arteries constrict to pull more salt
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22
Q

What does a high salt volume in blood mean? (3)

A
  • dehydrated, not enough water in body
  • too much salt eaten
  • kidney not working right
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23
Q

Why is it important for the kidney to keep functioning correctly?

A

electrolyte imbalances mean AP not fired correctly, which means heart not pumping correctly

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24
Q

What are kidney stones? Where do we see them? (3) What happens?

A
  • wet salts
  • see in collecting duct or ureter or urethra
  • fluid gets backed up in the kidney so salts not taken out of blood, throwing the balance system out of whack
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25
Q

PhysioX Acid-Base Activity 1

the normal range for pH is between ___. When it is higher than the range it is called ___. When it is lower than the range, it is called ___.
the normal PCO2 is between ___

Respiratory alkalosis is when blood CO2 is high/low. *It can be caused by. ___ (4) How does the renal system compensate?

A

pH = 7.35-7.45
high pH = alkalosis ; low pH = acidosis
pCO2 = 35-45 mm Hg
high PCO2 = acidosis ; low PCO2 = alkalosis

CO2 low

  • caused by hyperventilation (breathing rate/depth increased so breathing out CO2 which decreases H+; fever/panic attack, anxiety) or traveling to higher altitude
  • renal system retains H+ and excretes HCO3-

hyperventilation increased pH

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26
Q

PhysioX Exercise 10 Activity 2

Respiratory acidosis is a result of ___. *Some causes include (5).
What does it do to CO2 and H+ in the blood? the pH?
How does the renal system compensate?

A
  • result of hypoventilation
  • causes = airway obstruction, depression respiratory center, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, rebreathing (into a bag)
  • CO2 increases, shifts equation to the R with increase H+, decreasing pH
  • renal system excretes H+ and retains HCO3-
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27
Q

PhysioX Exercise 10 Activity 4

Respiratory alkalosis or acidosis is overcome by ___, which is the regulation/secretion of ___.

What happened to the concentration of H+ and HCO3- ions in the urine when PCO2 was lowered? Increased PCO2? Both simulated ___ (respiratory acidosis/alkalosis).

A

-overcome with renal compensation (which is the regulation of excretion of H+ and HCO3-

  • decreased PCO2 = urine H+ decreased, HCO3- increased (alkalosis)
  • increased PCO2 = urine H+ increased, HCO3- decreased (acidosis)
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28
Q

What are some causes of metabolic acidosis? (5)

A
  • ketoacidosis (from diabetes)
  • ingestion alcohol (metabolizes into acetic acid)
  • strenuous exercise (increase lactic acid)
  • salicylate poisoning (ingestion too much aspirin or oil of wintergreen)
  • diarrhea (loss bicarbonate)
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29
Q

What are some causes of metabolic alkalosis (3)?

A
  • ingestion of alkali (like antacids or bicarbonate)
  • vomiting (loss H+)
  • constipation (increase absorption HCO3-)
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30
Q

PhysioX Exercise 10 Activity 4

An increase in metabolic rate causes increase/decrease in CO2. This increase/decrease H+ in blood and causes acidosis/alkalosis. and vice versa ___.

*What can affect rate of cell metabolism? Increase (3) decrease (2)

What happened to breathing rate, H+, HCO3-, pH when met rate increased? Why?

What happened to breathing rate when metabolic rate was decreased? Why? What happened to H+, HCO3-, and pH?

A
  • more metabolism = more CO2 produced as waste, which increases H+ and results in acidosis
  • less metabolism = less CO2 produced which decreases H+, increasing pH
  • increase = fever, stress, ingestion food
  • decrease = lower body temperature, decrease in food intake
  • increase met rate = breaths per min and tidal vol increased because need to expel more CO2
  • increased H due to increased PCO2 and decreased HCO3-
  • decreased pH
  • decrease met rate = decrease breaths per minute; because less CO2 needed to expel
  • H+ decreased
  • pH and HCO3- increased
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31
Q

PhysioX Exercise 9 Activity 1

What are the 2 components to a nephron? What are their functions? How is fluid forced into the bowmans capsule? Bowans does not allow for ___ through (3)

What happens to the GFR when afferent arteriole radius increase?
What happens to the pressure/GFR/volume of urine if you decrease afferent radius?

What happens to the pressure/GFR/volume of urine flowing into the urinary bladder if you decrease the efferent radius?
What happens to pressure/GFR/volume urine if you increase efferent radius?

A
  • nephron = renal tubule + renal corpuscle
  • glomerulus = filters fluid
  • renal tubule = process filtered fluid (filtrate) - absorb nutrients & secrete waste
  • diameter for efferent arteriole smaller than efferent, which forces fluid out
  • does not let RBC, WBC, proteins through
  • increase afferent radius = pressure/GFR/urine volume (increase SA)
  • decrease afferent radius = pressure/GFR/urine vol decrease
  • decrease efferent radius = pressure/GFR/urine volume increase (squeezing it out)
  • increase efferent radius = pressure/GFR/volume decrease
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32
Q

PhysioX Activity 9 Exercise 2

*___ drives fluid between glomerular capillaries and filtrate in Bowmans capsule.

What happened to glomerular capillary pressure/GFR/urine output as BP increased?

What happened to the filtrate pressure in Bowman’s capsule and GFR when the valve between the collecting duct & urinary bladder was closed?

A

starling forces (hydrostatic & osmotic gradients)

  • increase BP = increase glomerular capillary pressure/GFR/urine output
  • close valve = increase glomerular capillary pressure/decrease GFR (because urine cannot be excreted)
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33
Q

PhysioX Exercise 9 Activity 3

True or false - GFR remains relatively constant despite fluctuating blood pressure

How could you adjust the afferent or efferent radius to compensate for the effect of reduced blood pressure on the glomerular filtration rate?

Which arteriole radius adjustment was more effective at compensating for the effect of low blood pressure on the glomerular filtration rate?

If the efferent arteriole radius decreases in response to a decrease in blood pressure, the glomerular filtration

Comparing the glomerular filtration rate and glomerular capillary pressure with the baseline values (from the first run), how effective was the decreased efferent arteriole radius in compensating for the low blood pressure?

A

true

  • Dilate the afferent arteriole and constrict the efferent arteriole.
  • afferent arteriole adjustment was more effective
  • GFR remains approximately the same
  • The efferent arteriole constriction improved the low glomerularcapillary pressure and filtration rate marginally.
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34
Q

PhysioX Exercise 9 Activity 5

Glucose is easily filtered out into the Bowmans capsule. To ensure reabsorption, ___ are present in the * ___. It undergoes ___ at the ___ membrane and ___ at the ___ membrane*. What happens when the limited number of glucose carriers are bound with glucose? Renal processing of plasma glucose does not involve ___. Why does glucose appear in the urine of untreated diabetic patients?

What happened to concentration of glucose in urine as glucose carriers increased?

A
  • glucose carrier proteins present in the PCT
  • secondary active transport at the apical membrane of PCT
  • facilitated diffusion along basolateral membrane
  • excess secreted as urine (when too much glucose)
  • does not involve secretion
  • An excessive amount of glucose is present in their filtrate

-increase glucose carriers = decreased glucose in urine (reabsorbed)

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35
Q

The ___ duct closes off the gland during urination.

A

ejaculatory duct

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36
Q

The ductus deferens is ___ epithelium.

A

cuboidal

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37
Q

The root of the penis is in the internal/outer part of the body.

A

internal

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38
Q

As men age, their ___ swells to constrict the ___, causing benign prostatic hyperplasia. This creates a consistent feel the need to void.

A

prostate swells to constrict prostatic urethra

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39
Q

What does the the seminal (2), prostate, and blubo-urethral glands produce (2), and how does it help the sperm?

Color? alkaline/acidic? what does it contain? what does it do for the sperm?

A

seminal

  • yellow, alkaline solution
  • fructose & citric acid that nourish sperm
  • prostaglandins that enhance mobility

prostate
-milky, acidic fluid with citric acid, enzymes, PSA that activates sperm

bulbo-urethral

  • clear, allkaline mucus
  • lubricates tip of penis
  • neutralizes acidic urine
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40
Q

___ gland contributes the largest volume to the semen

A

seminal

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41
Q

What color is the secretion from the seminal gland? Is it alkaline/acidic? What does it contain? How does it help the sperm?

A
  • thick yellow, alkaline solution
  • containing fructose & citric acid for nourishment sperm
  • prostaglandins for sperm motility
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42
Q

What color is the secretion from the prostate? Is it alkaline/acidic? What does it contain? How does it help the sperm?

A
  • milky, acidic

- citric acid, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), enzymes for sperm activation

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43
Q

What color is the secretion from the bulbo-urethral glands? Is it alkaline/acidic? What is its functions (2)?

A
  • clear alkaline mucous
  • lubricates tip of penis for copulation
  • neutralizes acidic urine
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44
Q

What is semen?

A

secretion from seminal, prostate, bulbo-urethral glands + sperm

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45
Q

where sperm produced? what cells are they made of?

A

seminiferous tubule made of spermatogenic cells

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46
Q

What is spermatogenesis? Where does it happen? What is the stem cell called? At puberty, each mitotic division produces ___ & ___. what are the products of meiosis I? Meiosis II? They are diploid/haploid. In a process called ___, ____ is stripped away from the spermatids to form sperm.

A
  • meiosis 1 and 2 for male reproduction
  • spermatogenic cells of seminiferous tubule of the testes
  • spermatogonia
  • each mitotic division produces primary spermatocyte & spermatogonium
  • meiosis I = secondary spermatocytes
  • meiosis II = early spermatids (hapolid products)
  • spermiogenesis strips away cytoplasm to form sperm
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47
Q

What do interstitial endocrine cells do? what are they activated by?

A
  • secrete testosterone to direct spermatogenesis

- turned on by the anterior pituitary that makes LH (sperm also has follicles!)

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48
Q

Sperm matures every ___ days.

A

35-40

49
Q

True or False

Sperm production/maturation happens until you die,

A

true

50
Q

True or false

testosterone levels drop as we age

A

true

51
Q

These 2 structures are CT that surrounds and protects lobule of the testes

A

tunica albuginea & vaginalis

52
Q

Do sperm at the lumen of seminiferous tubule reproduce?

A

no they are immature

53
Q

What is the pathway of sperm travel in the testes?

A

Seminiferous tubules → Straight tubule → rete testis → Efferent ductules → Epididymis → ductus deferens → spermatic cord → ejaculatory duct → urethra

54
Q

portion of the testis where blood vessels and sperm pass through

A

spermatic cord

55
Q

___ of the ____ allow for blood to accumulate in the penis

A

venous cavities of the corpora cavernosa

56
Q

testicular cancer is in the ___

A

epidydimis

57
Q

Younger develop ___ older develop ___ cancer

A 
younger = testicular
older = prostate
58
Q

When a male goes through puberty, it takes about ___ year(s) for sperm production to become regular

A

1 year

59
Q

How do the nervous system, temperature, nutrients, and water affect spermatogenesis?

A

more adrenaline/stress, higher temperature, malnourishment, dehydration = less sperm produced

60
Q

muscle that regulates temperature for mitosis for spermatogenesis

A

cremaster muscle

61
Q

Sperm only has these 3 structures. Hence, they are tiny

A

mitochondria & genetic material, flagella

62
Q

Where is the site of oogenesis?

A

ovary

63
Q

True or false

There is a physical connection between the fallopian tube and ovary

A

false

64
Q

How does the egg move from the ovary and into the fallopian tube?

A

fimbriae pulsate and creates a pull that sucks the ovary into the infundibulum

65
Q

where ovarian blood vessels are located? what is another function of the structure?

A

broad ligament, support

66
Q

Why does oogenesis result in one cell with most of the mass of original and another with just split off chromosome (polar body)?

A

need cytoplasm with all nutrients and organelles to sustain life

67
Q

why do females get adipose tissue around their uterus?

A

protect against chemicals

68
Q

Of the 3 layers of the uterine wall, which one is the thickest? what is it used for? (2)

A

myometrium, holds growing baby & contracts during childbirth to push baby out

69
Q

Which layer of the uterine wall sheds during menstrual cycle?

A

endometrium

70
Q

trace the pathway of milk

A

alveoli > lactiferous duct > lactiferous sinus > opening of lactiferous duct

71
Q

when does spermatogenesis begin?

A

at puberty

72
Q

before puberty, all mitotic divisions produce more of which stage of the sperm?

A

spermatogonia

73
Q

this hormone begins spermatogenesis at puberty

A

FSH

74
Q

are spermatids functional?

A

no

75
Q

immature ovums develop in a ___ encased by ___ (one layer), ___ (2 layers)

A

develops in a follicle encased by pre-granulosa (one layer) or granulosa cells (2+ layers)

76
Q

what is oogenesis? where does it occur? what are the stem cells called? before puberty, they are ___ oocyte which are at the ___ stage of meiosis I. At puberty ___ hormone begins the maturation process every ___ days and develops into a ___ oocyte.

A
  • female gamete production
  • occurs in ovary
  • stem cells = oogonia
  • before puberty primary oocytes, prophase of meiosis I
  • FSH triggers maturation cycle of every 28 days
  • develops into secondary oocyte
77
Q

true or false

at birth females have their lifetime supply of oocytes

A

true

78
Q

in a male, meiosis produces ___ functional gametes but ___ in females

A 
males = 4
females = 1
79
Q

true or false

unlike females, males do not have nutrients in their cytoplasm, therefore the semen nutrients are essential

A

true

80
Q

true or false

all organelles of the zygote are provided by the egg

A

true

81
Q
  1. at birth, ___ follicles are present and contain ___ oocytes arrested in ____.
  2. Throughout life thru menopause, ___ follicles develop into ___ follicles containing ___. Before puberty they under ___.
  3. After puberty, ___ follicles become ___ follicles. ___ oocytes complete ___ and develop into ___ oocytes arrested in ___. The oocyte is ejected during ovulation and the follicle becomes ___.
  4. Upon fertilization, ___ is completed and develops into an ___.
A
  1. at birth, primordial follicles with primary oocytes arrested in prophase 1
  2. throughout life and until menopause, primordial follicles develop into secondary follicles containing primary oocytes. Before puberty, they undergo atresia
  3. After pubterty, secondary follicles become vesicular follicles. Primary oocytes complete meiosis I and become secondary oocytes (release polar body) arrested in metaphase 2. Follicle becomes corpus luteum.
  4. Upon fertilization, meiosis 2 completed and develops into ovum.
82
Q

when oocytes undergo meiosis, they produce a polar body. what is it?

A

split half of chromosome

83
Q

list the stages of follicle development

A

primordial follicle > primary follicle > secondary follicle > late secondary follicle > vesicular follicle > corpus luteum

84
Q

list the stages of meitosis in a female

A

oogonium > primary oocyte > secondary oocyte + polar body > ovum + polar body

85
Q

list the stages of spermatogenesis

A

spermatogonium > primary spermatocyte > secondary spermatocyte > spermatids > sperm

86
Q

___ > ___ is meiosis 1

___ > ___ is meiosis 2

A

primary > secondary ooctye/spermatocyte is meiosis 1

secondary oocyte/spermatocyte > spermatid/ovum is meiosis 2

87
Q

During ovulation a spike in ___ hormone cause spike in these 2 hormones.

A

spike in estrogen = spike in FSH, LH

88
Q

estrogen an progesterone increase and peak during the secretory phase when ___ is formed

A

corpus luteum

89
Q

menstrual + proliferative phase = ___ stage of ovarian cycle

secretory phase = ___ stage

A

menstrual + proliferative phase = follicular stage

secretory phase = luteal stage

90
Q

estrogen and progesterone increases and decreases during the ___ stage of the uterine phases and ___ stage of the ovarian phases.

A

secretory of uterine

leutal of ovarian

91
Q

what happens to the lining of the endometrium in the menstrual, proliferative, and secretory phases of the uterine cycle?

A 
menstrual = endometrium sheds
proliferative = endometrium rebuilt
secretory = enrichment of blood supply & glandular secretion of nutrients to receive an embryo
92
Q

illustrate the gonadotropin levels, ovarian phase, plasma hormone levels, uterine phases

A
93
Q

Identify the organ. What are the red and white circles?

A

Kidney
Red = glomerulus
White = bowman’s capsule

94
Q

Identify the tissue. What cell is it made of? What is in the triangle area? What hormone does it produce? What is in the lumen?

A

seminiferous tubules of the Testes made of spermatogenic cells

Triangle = interstitial endocrine cells that produce testosterone

Lumen = immature sperm

95
Q

Identify the tissue

A

Epididymis

96
Q

Identify the tissue. What cells make up the outside? Inside? What is in the lumen?

A
97
Q

Identify the tissue. What is the big opening? What structure surrounds it? What is the structure at the top?

A

Penis

98
Q

Name the tissue. What are its 3 parts?

A
99
Q

Identify

A

Primary follicle

100
Q

Identify

A

Secondary follicle

101
Q

Identify

A

Late secondary follicle

102
Q

Identify
What is the clear space?
what is the light purple space?

A

Vesicular follicle
antrum
zona pellucida

103
Q

Identify

A

Corpus luteum

104
Q

Identify

A

Vesicular follicle

105
Q

Identify the tissue. What is the clear part in the middle? What is the border around it? What covers it? what is the zig zag?

A

uterine tube
outside perimeter = serosa
zig zag = highly folded mucosa

106
Q

Identify purple part

A

Perimetrium

107
Q

Identify the bottom

A

Myometrium

108
Q

Identify

A

Endometrium

109
Q

what are the ovarian phases

A

follicular, ovulation (day 14), luteal

110
Q

what are the uterine phases

A

menstrual, proliferative, secretory

111
Q

true or false

spermatids are nonmotile

A

true

112
Q

What are the major regions of the sperm?

A

Head - genetic region; nucleus and helmetlike acrosome containing hydrolytic enzymes that enable sperm to penetrate egg
Midpiece - metabolic region; mitochondria 🡪 ATP to move tail
Tail - locomotor region; flagellum

113
Q

what is the function of the endometrium

A

helps promote development of fertilized egg

114
Q

antrum forms in the ___ follicle

A

vesicular

115
Q

the ___ secretes progesterone and estrogen during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle

A

corpus lutem

116
Q

what happens to the corpus luteum if pregnancy occurs?

A

produces hormones that sustain pregnancy until placenta takes over at about 3 months

117
Q

what is the function of FSH in males and females?

what is the function of LH in males and females

A

FSH

  • sperm production
  • ovarian follicle development & estrogen production

LH
males - testosterone production
females - ovulation & ovarian production of estrogen & progesterone

118
Q

label diagram

A

Anatomy & Physiology 2 (14 decks)

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