Issues And Debates Flashcards
gender bias
What is the definition of gender
The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes
gender bias
What is the definition of alpha bias
When the differences between men and women are exaggerated to boost or put down the value of women
gender bias
How did Freud show alpha bias
Concluded that women had weaker superegos that men because they had less reason to identify with mother as there was no fear of castration
Freud said: ‘femininity is an expression of failed masculinity’
gender bias
What is beta bias
When differences between the two sexes are ignored or minimalised. This is often seen when female participants are not involved as part of a research process and it is then assumed the findings apply equally to both sexes.
gender bias
What is the definition of androcentrism
Male cantered- when behaviour is judged according to the male standard, usually making women appear abnormal. This is caused through both alpha and beta bias and is caused by psychology being a male-dominated field
gender bias
How does the research into fight or flight show beta bias
All research into fight or flight was based off a study on men. It was then assumed women had the same fights or flight response as men. Whereas reality showed women’s fight or flight is inhibited as they care for offspring or form defensive networks
gender bias
How does Milgrams research show beta bias
Said 65% of people went up to 400v (only studied men)
Sheridan and king found 100% of women went up to 400v
gender bias
How is PMS an example of androcentrism
If a man is angry it is believed to be a rational response to a stimulus
If a woman is angry it is said to be her hormones
gender bias
What are the limitations of gender bias
Sexism in research- women still under represented when data is collected- leads to beta bias and can be harmful for stereotypes.
Gender bias not taken seriously- formanowicz analysed over 1000 articles on bender bias over 8 years and found that research on gender bias is often funded less and published in less prestigious journals
Contradictory evidence- Joel found that when he scanned the brains of men and women he found that there were no differences in structure or processing between the two genders. Disproving the theory that there is neural differences between men and women (Maccoby and Jacklin)
culture bias
What is the definition of culture bias
A tendency to interpret behaviour and attitudes through the ‘lens’ of one’s own cultures ignoring the effects that cultural differences may have
culture bias
What did Henrichs find about culture bias in psychology
68% of research participants are from the USA
96% are from industrialised nations
culture bias
What name did Henrich give to people who usually participate in psychological studies
WEIRD
White
Educated people
From industrialised
Rich
Democracies
culture bias
How does the US diagnosis of mental health problems show culture bias
Because it is diagnosed using the DSM and is likely to be administered by a white doctor
culture bias
How many times more likely is a black West Indian to be admitted to a mental hospital than a white person in London
2
culture bias
What is the definition of ethnocentrism
The belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group. This means other cultures are judged by the standard of one’s own culture, leading to prejudice and discrimination
culture bias
What is an example of ethnocentrism in research
Ainsworth’s strange situation
USA norm for attachment was ‘secure’
German and Japanese babies said to have insecure attachment for being more independent or clingy, when in reality this was ‘secure’ for their cultures
culture bias
What is an example of ethnocentrism in real world
Intelligence tests in USA to join the army
culture bias
How did Adrian dove prove USA intelligence tests to be culturally bias
Made the chitling test
culture bias
What is an etic approach to research
Research conducted in one country is applied to others
For example Starbucks and strange situation
culture bias
What is an emic approach to research
Research conducted within one small specific culture/area and only used to describe behaviour in that culture
For example McDonald’s
culture bias
What is cultural relativism
When psychologists understand that the ‘things’ they discover can only be meaningful and understood within the specific culture they were discovered.
culture bias
How did Birslin show intelligence testing showed ethnocentrism and an etic approach
The Baganda people of Uganda characterise intelligence as slow careful and deliberate thought which would not suit a western IQ test which is timed. This could lead to discrimination and prejudice
culture bias
What are limitations of culture bias
Much research is culturally bias- Asch only studied white middle-class Americans. When this was replicated in collectivist cultures conformity was much higher. This can lead to harmful prejudice and stereotypes
Harmful effects- Gould showed how conscription tests for WW1 were ethnocentric and made for white people. This made minorities appear less intelligent and ‘mentally unfit’
culture bias
What are the strengths of culture bias
Psychology has changed- Takano and Osaka found that in 14/15 studies comparing the USA to Japan there was no evidence of ‘individualism’ or ‘collectivism’- saying this conclusion is ‘lazy’ and simplistic. Shows culture bias is less of a problem now
Advanced psychology- cultural psychology is now a field that was established due to cultural bias. This incorporates sociology, political science and anthropology and takes an emic approach to tackle cultural bias.
free will vs determinism
What is the definition of free will
The bottom that humans can make choices and that their behaviours and thoughts are not determined by biological or environmental factors
free will vs determinism
What is the definition of determinism
The view that an individuals behaviour is shaped by biological or environmental factors
free will vs determinism
What are the two types of determinism
Hard determinism- ‘fatalism’
Soft determinism- put forward by James (1990)
free will vs determinism
What are the three main types of determinism
Biological- hormones, genes, neural structure etc
Environmental- decisions combination of all reinforcement received
Psychic- sexual desires and instincts- problems in psychosexual stages etc
free will vs determinism
What are the arguments for determinism (AO3)
Supporting evidence- Libel put participants in MRI scanners and asked them to flick their roar at any time. He found that before they made the conscious decision to do so there was unconscious brain activity.
free will vs determinism
What are the arguments for free will (AO3)
Better for mental health- Roberts (2000) forms in a study that teens who believed in fatalism were more likely to have depression
Better for legal system- of determinism is believed would be very hard to sentence criminals
nature-nurture debate
What are the 5 parts of the nature nurture debate
Nature
Interactionist approach
Nurture
Epigenetics
Diathesis stress model
nature-nurture debate
Define the nature side of nature nurture debate
Biological factors are the cause of behaviour
Heritability coefficient used from 0-1
IQ is 0.5
Height is 0.9
Depression is 0.4
nature-nurture debate
Explain the nurture side of the nature nurture debate
Non genetic factors explain behaviour
Lerner suggested there are two different levels of environment. Pre natal and post natal
Links to behaviour approach with the belief in a tabula rasa
nature-nurture debate
Explain the interaction it’s approach
View that nature and nurture work simultaneously
One example of this is PKU
This is as a result of two recessive genes and can cause mental retardation. However if diagnosed early and child is placed on a low protein diet this can lead to PKU not being expressed
nature-nurture debate
Explain epigenetics
Refers to a change in genetic activity without actually changing our genes
This is when our everyday life leaves a ‘mark’ on our DNA for example smoking and diet
These marks tell our bodies which genes to ignore and which to activate, meaning habits can be passed down to offspring
Dias and Ressler proved this by making rats smell perfume before being shocked. The offspring of these rats were then scared of the smell having never smelled it.
nature-nurture debate
Explain the diathesis-stress model
Suggests that mental illness is a result of biological factors that are triggered by a traumatic event.
Tienari found that in Finnish adoptees who were vulnerable to schizophrenia as their mothers had it. Only those who were bought up in ‘disturbed’ or ‘dysfunctional’ households developed schizophrenia.
nature-nurture debate
What are the strengths of the nature nurture debate
Twin studies are helpful- clearly shows how nature and nurture have separately effected a child. For example Rhee and wardman found through twin studies that 41% of the variance in aggression can be accounted for by genetic influences
Supporting evidence- Susser and Lin found that Dutch woman who were pregnant during starvation in 1940 had children who were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia.
Real world application- Nesdatdt said that OCD was 0.76 heritable. This can help with ‘genetic counselling’ where advice is given to people who are likely to have a child with a disorder which can improve a child’s quality of life.
nature-nurture debate
What are the weaknesses of the nature nurture debate
Impossible to decipher between the two- Plomin said that you can’t decipher between the two because as a child will naturally place themselves in an environment that fits their nature. This is known as ‘niche-picking’ and ‘niche-building’
Harmful consequences- if someone believes very strongly in the nature side this can lead to prejudice. This has previously lead to ethnic cleansing and eugenic policies.
If someone believes strongly in the nurture side then this may leave to behavioural shaping such as in North Korea which is also unethical
holism and reductionism
What is the theory of holism
The parts of any whole cannot be understood except in their relation to the whole. You cannot break something down too it’s parts and expect to understand the whole
holism and reductionism
What is the theory of reductionism
All complex systems can be completely understood in terms of its components. You can break something down into smaller parts in order to study the thing as a whole.
holism and reductionism
I what is biological reductionism
The idea that all human behaviour can be broken down into a single, physical, neurochemical and genetic unit
holism and reductionism
What is environmental reductionism
Behaviourist approach built off this as behaviourists break down all human behaviour into stimulus-response links that can be measured in a lab
holism and reductionism
What are the strengths of the holistic approach
Explains social behaviour- for example it can be used to study conformity, ISI and NSI. This is because there is no use focusing on the individual as the collective is what is being observed.
holism and reductionism
What is a limitation of holism
Lacks practical value- humanistic approach shows the many layers to human behaviour, showing something like depression can have many causing factors. This then makes it hard to administer therapy as these different layers are ignored
holism and reductionism
What is a strengths of reductionism
Very scientific- approaches such as the behaviourist and biological study behaviour through operationalising variables and doing highly scientific lab research. For example biological approach uses MRI and PET scans and twin studies. This gives reductionism higher credibility
holism and reductionism
What is a limitation of reductionism
Over-simplified- criticised for ignoring ‘bigger picture.’ For example limiting OCD to a single gene. Can explain why someone has a disorder such as schizophrenia but cannot say how it effects life and feels. Shows a lack of validity as a full explanation cannot be given
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What is the idiographic approach
Focuses on individual cases
Attempts to gain a detailed insight of specific and unique behaviour
Does not aim to formulate general laws of behaviour
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What is the nomothetic approach
Attempts to study human behaviour to make general principles and universal laws
Studies a large number of people
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What methods are used in the idiographic approach
Qualitative methods used to get now depth
Unstructured interviews, observations and case studies used
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What methods are used in the nomothetic approach
Quantitative methods used
Mean, median, mode, dispersion graphs and statistical analysis used
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What are examples in psychology of the idiographic approach
Humanistic approach
Phineas Gage
HM
Little Hans
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What are examples of the nomothetic approach in psychology
Behaviourist approach
Biological approach
Strange situation
Oedipus and Electra complex
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What are the main assumptions of the idiographic approach
People are unique entities
People have their own subjective experiences and motivations
You cannot compare unique individuals to larger groups
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What are the main assumptions of the nomothetic approach
Psychologists should produce general laws about human behaviour
This provides a ‘benchmark’ to compare people against
Large numbers of people should be researched
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What is a strength of the idiographic approach
Uses in depth qualitative methods that are very detailed
Case studies can lead to nomothetic research (for example HM)
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What is a limitation of the idiographic approach
Time consuming
Less scientific
Researcher bias can be a factor
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What is a strength of the nomothetic approach
Very scientific
Uses standardised procedure and statistical analysis
Greater scientific credibility
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
What is a limitation of the nomothetic approach
Ignores the ‘whole person’ as it shows why people have OCD not what it’s like to live with it.
This leads to a lack of external validity
ethical implications of studies and theory
What is socially sensitive research
Areas of research that are likely to be seen as controversial
This is often research about race, IQ, criminality, sexuality etc
ethical implications of studies and theory
What did Aronson say about socially sensitive research
‘Just because socially sensitive research attracts attention from the media and public does not mean we should shy away from it. In fact, this research is very important and therefore psychologists have a social responsibility to carry it out’
ethical implications of studies and theory
What did Sieber and Stanley identify as the main problems in socially sensitive research
The research question- consider how to word question so it appears less harmful
Dealing with participants- consent, confidentiality and psychological harm must be taken seriously as more serious topics can mean more serious consequences for individuals
The way findings are used
ethical implications of studies and theory
What are the strengths of socially sensitive
Study or 5000 gay people in 1948 got being gay removed from DSM as personality disorder in 1973
‘Office of national statistics’ - government uses research to to implement laws such as those helping with childcare and mental health provision
ethical implications of studies and theory
What are the limitations of socially sensitive research
Criminal gene
Burts reasearxh lead to introduction of 11+ but it was all fake
