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Forensic Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

top down

What is offender profiling

A

A tool used by police when solving crimes- with the main aim being to narrow down the field of enquiry and make a list of suspects by looking at the crime scene and evidence

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2
Q

top down

What is the top down approach

A

Originated from FBI

Used to solve the most severe violent cases by interviewing most serious sexually motivated killers including ted bundy and Charles Manson

Also referred to as ‘typology’ as offenders are organised into organised or disorganised offender categories

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3
Q

top down

What are characteristics LH organised offenders

A

Plan crime in advance

Precision

Highly controlled

Lack of evidence

Usually married

Socially sound

Above average intelligence

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4
Q

top down

What are some traits of disorganised offenders

A

Lack of planning

Evidence left

Low iq

Socially awkward

Usually unemployed

Little interest in crime

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5
Q

top down

What are the four main stages of constructing an FBI profile

A

Data assimilation- evidence is reviewed

Crime scene classification- see if organised or disorganised

Crime reconstruction- hypothesis of how crime happened

Profile generation- hypothesis about offender (stature/behaviour)

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6
Q

top down

What are the strengths of the top down approach?

A

Supporting evidence- Canter looked at 100 US serial killings by using a ‘smallest space analysis’ which matched characteristics to crimes which matched the FBI typologies

Good generalisability- Meketa (2017) found that in 3 US states there has been an increase of 85% in solving burglaries using top down approach. categories of interpersonal and opportunistic made for this

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7
Q

top down

What are the weaknesses of the top down approach

A

contrast- Godwin argued that many criminals overlapped categories. suggests organised or disorganised typology is more of a continuum

Low internal validity- canter argues that the sample used of 36 serial killers was too niche and they were all interviewed using unstructured interviews so all questions were different and not comparable. all committed at least two murders and 25 committed multiple

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8
Q

bottom up

What is the bottom up approach

A

‘British approach’

Uses past data from similar crimes to build a picture of an offender. Investigators will look at crime scene and compare to similar ones in the past. Does not use typologies and is ‘data driven’

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9
Q

bottom up

What are the two main components of the bottom up approach

A

Investigative psychology

Geographical profiling

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10
Q

bottom up

What is investigative psychology

A

Compare a currently investigated crime scene to those of the past to find out the type of person that committed the crime by establishing patterns of behaviour

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11
Q

bottom up

What are the three main parts of investigative psychology

A

Interpersonal coherence- the way the offender behaves at the scene and how they ‘interact’ with the victim

Significance of time and place- shows where the offender is living

Forensic awareness- see how mindful they are of covering their tracks, can show if they have been investigated before

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12
Q

bottom up

What is geographical profiling

A

Based on spatial consistency

An offenders operational base and never crime locations can be discovered through previous crimes

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13
Q

bottom up

What are the three main parts of geographical profiling

A

Spatial consistency- people commit crimes within a limited space

Crime mapping- maps previous crimes to find base of criminal

Modus operandi- a particular way of method or doing something

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14
Q

bottom up

Wag are the two types of geographical criminal and what does this mean

A

Marauder- operates close to home base

Commuter- travels distance from usual residence

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15
Q

bottom up

What are the strengths of the bottom up approach

A

Supporting evidence- Gary Copson surveyed 48 police departments and bottom up approach was deemed useful in 83% of cases

Supporting evidence- Ludigran and Canter investigated 120 murder cases and found that where killers disposed of bodies formed a circle around their home base, this was more noticeable in marauders. supports canters circle theory

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16
Q

bottom up

What are the weaknesses of the bottom up approach

A

Mixed results- Copson found that bottom up approach lead to identification of offender in only 3% of cases in 48 police departments surveyed

Significant failures- Rachel nickell was killed and sexually assaulted in Wimbledon park. Colin Stagg was suspect and tracked for 5 months. Case closed due to lack of evidence. Robert Napper arrested 16 years later and had been dismissed prior due to being taller than description of killer

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17
Q

historic explanations

What is atavistic from

A

An early biological explanation which suggests criminals are subspecies or genetic throwbacks. That rate distinguishable by facial and cranial features

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18
Q

historic explanations

What was Lombroso’s research

A

Studied over 4000 skulls of dead and alive criminals and concluded 40% of crimes could be accounted for by atavistic characteristics

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19
Q

historic explanations

What are some criminal characteristics?

A

Narrow, sloping brow

High cheekbones

Facial asymmetry

Dark skin

Prominent jaw

Extra toes, nipples and fingers

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20
Q

historic explanations

What is a Strength of atavism

A

Changed criminal psychology- Hollin described Lombroso as ‘The father of modern criminology’ This was because he moved crime research towards more scientific measures. Also shows links to offender profiling.

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21
Q

historic explanations

What are the limitations of atavistic explanations

A

Poorly controlled- lombroso did not compare criminal samples with control non criminal sample so he could not control confounding variables, such as class.

Bad implications- Delisl and other critics have shown how there were racist undertones in Lombroso’s work. For example criminals having curly hair and dark skin.

contradictory evidence- Goring studied 3000 criminals and 3000 non crimi9nals and found no correlation between cranial features and crime

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22
Q

biological explanations

What was Lange’s research into genetic explanations for offending

A

Studied 17 MZ twins and 13 DZ twins where one of the twins had served time in prison.

Found that 10 of the MZ twins and only 2 of the DZ twins had both spent time in prison

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23
Q

biological explanations

What was Christiansen’s research into genetic explanations for offending

A

Studied over 3500 twins between 1880 and 1910

Found concordance rates of 35% of MZ twins and found 13% for DZ twins

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24
Q

biological explanations

What did Tiihonen discover about candidate genes

A

Found that 5-10% off all severe violent crimes in Finland could be attributed to the MAOA and CDH13 genes.

Individuals with both genes were 13x more likely to have a history of violent behaviour.

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25
Q

biological explanations

What does the MAOA gene do

A

MAOA is a chemical that breaks down excess neurotransmitters such as serotonin. If this gene is defective then there will be less serotonin being broken down so there will be an excess which could result in aggression and risk taking

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26
Q

biological explanations

What is the CDH13 gene linked to

A

ADHD and substance abuse

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27
Q

biological explanations

What is a strength of genetic explanations for offending

A

Supporting evidence- Mednick studies 13000 Danish adoptees who committed petty offences. Found that if neither biological or adopted parents had a criminal record the percentage of adoptees that did was 13.5%. If one biological parent did this rose to 20% and if one biological and one adopted parents did this rose to 24.5%

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28
Q

biological explanations

What is a weakness off genetic explanations of offending

A

Lack of validity- MZ twins are more likely to have higher concordance rates because they look the same so are therefore treated notes similarly than DZ twins

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29
Q

biological explanations

What are neutral explanations for offending behaviour

A

Looking at brain structure and how offenders may differ. Much of these findings come from offenders with antisocial personality disorder.

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30
Q

biological explanations

What is antisocial personality disorder associated with.

A

Reduced emotional and lack of empathy. Psychopaths are also impulsive, self-centred and manipulative

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31
Q

biological explanations

What did Raine find about APD

A

Found an 11% reduction in the volume of gray matter in the PFC of people with APD compared to a control group.

PFC regulates emotion

Damage to PFC can result in lack of control over impulses

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32
Q

biological explanations

What did Keysers find about mirror neurons

A

Asked psychopaths to watch someone on film feel pain

They did not feel empathy until told to

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33
Q

biological explanations

What were the suggestions of Keysners research

A

Psychopaths are not completely without empathy and can turn it on and off

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34
Q

biological explanations

What is a Strength of neural explanations for offending

A

Kandel and Freed rescued people with frontal lobe damage including to the PFC. They found evidence for lack of control over impulses and emotional instability, this supports Raine’s study

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35
Q

biological explanations

What are the weaknesses of neural explanations for offending

A

Intervening variables- Farmington studied a group of men who scored high on a psychopathy test and found many of them had convict parents or were physically neglected

Problematic real world implications- suggests they are hardwired to do crimes so hard to convict

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36
Q

psychological theory (eysenck)

What is Eysneck’s explanation for offending.

A

Personality can be measured on two dimensions introversion/extroversion and neuroticism/stability. He later added psychotism

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37
Q

psychological theory (eysenck)

What are examples of traits of psychotism, neuroticism and extroversion

A

Psychotism- aggressive, manipulative

Neuroticism- anxious, low self esteem

Extroversion- sociable, dominant

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38
Q

psychological theory (eysenck)

What did Eysenck say about extroverts, neurotic individuals and psychotic individuals

A

Extroverts- underactive nervous system, so participate in more risk taking activity

Neurotic individuals- nervous, jumpy, unpredictable

Psychotic individuals- higher levels of testosterone, cold and aggressive

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39
Q

psychological theory (eysenck)

What is a strength of Eysneck’s personality as an explanation for offending

A

Supporting evidence- Sybil and Hans Eysneck compared 2070 inmates to a control group of 2422 non criminals. They found that the criminal sample scored much higher on psychotism neuroticism and extroversion

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40
Q

psychological theory (eysenck)

Quay are weakness of Eysnecks personality as a theory for offending

A

Contradictory evidence- Farrington concluded via a meta analysis that offenders scored higher on P but not on N or E. Kussner also said there was very little difference between an introvert and an extrovert on an EEG measurement.

Poor generalisability- Bartol and Holanchock investigated the personalities of Hispanic and African American inmates in a high security prison in New York. They were split into 6 groups depending on their crime and all 6 groups are found to be less extrovert than a non criminal control group

too simplistic- Moffitt suggested that offending in adolescence and offending consistently are different. suggested that if someone is offending through their later life it is due to personality AND environment.

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41
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What dilemma did Kohlberg come up with

A

The Heinz dilemma

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42
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What were the findings from the Heinz dilemma

A

A group of violent youths were much lower in moral development than non violent youths.

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43
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What were Kohlberg’s stages of morality

A

Preconventional Morality

Stage 1- punishment orientation: rules are obeyed to avoid punishment

Stage 2-personal gain orientation- rules are obeyed for personal gain

Conventional morality

Stage 3- good boy orientation: rules are obeyed for approval

Stage 4- maintenance of social order

Postconventional morality

Stage 5- rules obeyed if impartial but challenged if oppressive

Stage 6- individual establishes own set of rules which align with their beliefs

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44
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What is a strength of Kohlbergs theory of offending

A

Supporting evidence- palmer and hollin compared 126 offenders to a control group and found low levels of morality are associated with offending using the Socio moral reflection short form (SMR-SF)

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45
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What are weaknesses of Kohlbergs’s theory for offending

A

Poor generalisability- Thornton and Reid found that for burglary and other crimes for financial gain morality was lower but for impulsive crimes there wasn’t a lack of morality

Poor internal validity- Rosen argues the Heinz situation doesn’t work as children aren’t married so the dilemma lacks realism

46
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What are cognitive distortions

A

Faulty ways of thinking where a persons perceptions do not match reality. This can lead to criminals wrongly deny or justify their actions

47
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What is hostile attribution bias

A

When people misinterpret a person or situation as being confrontational when it is not

48
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What evidence supports hostile attribution bias as a theory for offending

A

Schonenberg and Justye presented 55 violent criminals with emotionally ambiguous facial expressions and the violent control group were much more likely to view the expressions as hostile

49
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What is minimalisation

A

When an offender downplays the severity of their crime to revert guilt or even blame the victim

50
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What research supports the theory of minimalisation as a theory for offending

A

Bombaree found that out of 26 convicted rapists 54% devoted committing a crime and 40% minimalised the harm they caused

Pollock and Hushnall found that 35% of a sample of child molesters said what they did want sexual and 36% stated the victim consented

51
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What is a strength of cognitive distortions as an explanation for offending

A

Real works application- developed a way to give therapy to sex offenders to get them to ‘face up’ to their crimes and stop down playing it

52
Q

psychological theory (cognitive)

What are weaknesses of cognitive distortions as explanation for offending

A

Poor generalisability- Howitt and Sheldon found that minimalisation depended on crime. Non physical sex offenders were more likely too minimalise crime than physical sec offenders

53
Q

psychological theory (differential association)

What is the differential association theory

A

Proposes that behaviours and attitudes are learnt through the people you associate with

54
Q

psychological theory (differential association)

What are the two main factors of the DA theory

A

Learning attitudes

Learning techniques

55
Q

psychological theory (differential association)

What is the equation for likelihood of offending

A

Frequency + intensity + duration = Limehouse of offending

56
Q

psychological theory (differential association)

What was farringtons study of DA

A

441 boys were surveyed from a deprived area of south london

41% were convicted of at least one offence between 10-50

Factors that were looked at between 8-10 were family criminality risk taking poverty etc

7% were said to be chronic offenders

57
Q

psychological theory (differential association)

What are the strengths of DA as a theory of offending

A

Good generalisability- Sutherland found that some crimes such as burglaries were more common in working class communities and white collar crime was more prevalent in middle classes

Moved criminology forwards- DA established in 1924, moved criminology away from harmful theories such as atavistic form

58
Q

psychological theory (differential association)

What are the limitations of DA as a theory for offending

A

Hard so prove- based off someone’s pro crime attitudes outweighing their anti crime ones but it is impossible to measure this so cannot be proved

Harmful- ignores that people can choose not to offend even if from rough environment, can create harmful stereotypes about the working class

59
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (custodial sentencing)

What is custodial sentencing

A

Making an individual spend time incarcerated

60
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (custodial sentencing)

What are the four main aims of custodial sentencing

A

Deterrence

Incapacitation

Retribution

Rehabilitation

61
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (custodial sentencing)

Worst are the psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A

Stress and depression

Institutionalisation

Prisonisation

62
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (custodial sentencing)

What are the global recidivism rates

A

UK- 45%

Norway- 20%

US and Australia- 60%

63
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (custodial sentencing)

What is a strength of custodial sentencing

A

Good effects- Vera institute of justice claims that offenders who take part in college programmes in prison are 43% less likely to reoffend and more likely to be employed

64
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (custodial sentencing)

What are the limitations of custodial sentencing

A

Worse for offenders- prisons can act as ‘schools for crime’ which leads to high recidivism rates and could mean petty offenders move onto worse crimes

Negative impacts- Bartol suggested that suicide rates are 9 times higher in prison than in the outside world. 25% of women and 15% of men in prisons show signs of psychosis

65
Q

psychological theory (psychodynamic)

What are the two psychodynamic explanations of crime

A

The inadequate superego

Maternal deprivation theory

66
Q

psychological theory (psychodynamic)

What are the three types of inadequate superego and why do they occur

A

The weak superego- when a same sex parent is absent so child cannot overcome complex through identification

The deviant superego- if same sex parents is criminal child will pick up characteristics through internalisation

The over harsh superego- crippled by anxiety and guilt so commits criminal acts due to superego’s need for punishment

67
Q

psychological theory (psychodynamic)

What is the maternal deprivation theory

A

Bowlby says that affectionless psychopathy can result of lack of a warm mother figure (IWM)

68
Q

psychological theory (psychodynamic)

What study supports theory of maternal deprivation as resulting in criminal activity

A

Bowlby’s 44 thieves study

14 classed as affectionless psychopaths

12/14 had been separated from their mothers a lot during first 2 years of their lives

Of a non criminal control group only 2 suffered from maternal deprivation

69
Q

psychological theory (psychodynamic)

What is a strength of psychodynamic explanations for offending

A

Supporting evidence- Goreta studied 10 criminals referred from psychiatric facilities and found all of them suffered from ‘disturbance in superego formation’ and all reported guilt and need for punishment

70
Q

psychological theory (psychodynamic)

What are the weaknesses of the psychodynamic explanation for offending

A

Gender bias- Freud’s theory assumes that women have a weaker superego than men because they don’t have the fear of castration and therefore lack morals meaning they should be more prone to crime- 90% of people in prisons are males

Lack of evidence- psychodynamic approach relies on subconscious thoughts which cannot be tested to be wrong so is a ‘pseudoscience’

contrasting evidence- Lewis analysed interviews with 500 young people and found maternal deprivation played a limited role in future offending. if this was the case hard to establish cause and effect as mother being absent may link to poverty

71
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (behaviour modification in custody)

What Are the strengths of token economy systems

A

Easy to use- can be implemented by anyone as training isn’t needed. Also very cheap and cost effective

Supporting evidence- Hobbs and Holt found that young offenders displayed more positive behaviour after using token economy system. Field supports this if reads were frequent and immediate

72
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (behaviour modification in custody)

What are the limitations of token economy systems

A

Not rehabilitative- doesn’t look at why poor behaviour occurs so won’t fully change behaviour. Inmates can comply in prison but because of no rewards outside of prison they don’t behave well

Inconsistent approach- Basset and Blanchard found that all positive effects were lost if applied inconsistently. This was due to lack of staff training and high staff turnover.

Unethical- Moya and Achtenburg say the withdrawal of prisoners rights is unethical

73
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (anger management)

How is anger management programmes a form of CBT

A

Patient is taught how to recognise cognitive factors that causes anger and techniques to combat it.

74
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (anger management)

What are the aims of anger management

A

Short term aim of cutting down on anger and aggression in prisons

A long term aim of rehabilitation to reduce recidivism

75
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (anger management)

What are the three stages of anger management

A

Cognitive preparation- offender thinks back to times they got angry and therapist gets them to see this was irrational.

Skill acquisition- offenders introduced to techniques to reduce anger including: positive self talk (cognitive), better communication (behavioural), meditation for relaxation (physiological)

Application- role play in carefully controlled environment

76
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (anger management)

What did Keen find about anger management

A

Studied offenders between 17-21 who did 8 two hour sessions over 3 weeks

Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger and better self restraint

Some were said to not take it seriously and would forget diaries and forget routines etc

77
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (anger management)

What is a strength of anger management

A

Long term- identifies cognitive causes of anger so offender can reinforce anger management outside of prison

78
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (anger management)

What are the weaknesses of anger management

A

Short term- use of role play is artificial and downs reflect real life. May suggest why there is little evidence treatment works in the long term (blackburn)

Expensive- has to be carried out by highly trained specialists. This means that many prisons can’t afford this so many people can’t get help

doesnt work for everyone- Howells found that there was little impact when compared to control group except for those who showd intense levels of anger or showed willingness to change- where there was significant improvement

79
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (restorative justice)

What is restorative justice

A

A system of dealing with offender behaviour which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with the victim. This enables the offender to see the impact of their crime and gives the victim a voice.

80
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (restorative justice)

What are the 5 things restorative justice provide victims with

A

An opportunity to explain the impact of the crime

An acknowledgement of the harm caused

A chance to ask questions

Acceptance of responsibility

Active not passive involvement from both

81
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (restorative justice)

What did braithwait say about restorative justice

A

‘Crime hurts, justice should heal’ restorative justice is now about reparation than retribution

82
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (restorative justice)

What features does a restorative justice programme have

A

Trained mediator

Non courtroom setting

83
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (restorative justice)

How does restorative justice effect sentencing

A

Can reduce time served

Can lead to community service not prison

84
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (restorative justice)

What are the three types of restitution

A

Financial

Practical

Emotional

85
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (restorative justice)

What are the strengths of restorative justice

A

Supporting evidence- Shapland found 85% of victims were satisfied, 78% would recommend it, 60% said it made them feel better, 2% said they felt worse.

Long term help- Strang conducted a meta analysis and found a drop in recidivism in criminals who took part in RJ. Bain found the same thing

86
Q

dealing with offending behaviour (restorative justice)

What are the weaknesses of restorative justice

A

Not always effective- Van Gijsegham suggests offenders only do it for personal gain. This means it is not always effective and can be the opposite

Cannot be done by everyone- cannot be done by domestic abuse victims due to a power imbalance and pressure on the victim

87
Q

bottom up

what is the ‘cente of gravity’

A

an area established by profilers when investigating thye area in which a criminal has worked

88
Q

bottom up

what is Canter’s circle theory

A

when the offedners base and where their crimnes occurred are circled to show if they are a maurauder or a commuter

89
Q

historical explanations

what features did lombroso say murderers had

A

bloodshot eyes

curly hair

long ears

90
Q

historical explanations

what features did lombroso say sexual deviants had

A

glinting eyes

fleshly lips

projecting ears

91
Q

historical explanations

what features did lombroso say fraudsters had

A

thin and reedy lips

92
Q

biological explanations

what model is thought to play a part in genetic causes of offending

A

diathesis-stress

93
Q

eysenck

what did eysenck believe about the role of socialisation

A

offenders are devlopmentally immature and demand instant gratification

socialisation is when children learn to delay instant gratification

E believed those with high E and N scores had nervous systems which made them difficult to condition

94
Q

eysenck

how did eysenck measure criminal personality

A

eysenck personality questionnaire (EPQ)

95
Q

kohlberg

what morality level are offenders more likely to be in

A

1 and 2

96
Q

kohlberg

how does chandlers research support kohlbergs theory

A

found offenders are often more egocentric and have poorer perspective-taking skills than non offenders

97
Q

differential association

what did sutherland say he wanted to develop

A

a set of scientific principles that could explain all types of offending.

98
Q

differential association

how does socialisation in prison affect DA

A

explains why people reoffend upon release

they learn new techniques and attitudes from observation, tuition etc

99
Q

psychodynamic

how does the superego play a part in morals

A

develops at end of phallic stage

works on moprality principle

it punishes id with guilt and rewrads it with pride

100
Q

psychodynamic

how does the supergo explain offending

A

if it is somehow deviant then the id has free rein

101
Q

custodial sentencing

what does prisonisation mean

A

when a person adopts an ‘inmate code’ which may reward them inside an institution but is seen as unacceptable in the real world

102
Q

custodial sentencing

what does institutionaliosation mean

A

when a person adapts to the norms of life inside so much they cannot function on the outside

103
Q

token economy

what approach do tojken economy systems take on

A

behaviourist

104
Q

token economy

what form of conditioning is tokjen economy systems an exampke of

A

operant

105
Q

token economy

what are the tokens in a token economy system

A

secondary reinforcers

106
Q

token economy

how do token economy systems achieve target behaviours

A

through operationalised target behaviours- breaking target behaviours into smaller pieces

107
Q

token economy

how should tokens outnumber pubnishments

A

4-1 (Gendreau)

108
Q

token economy

what is the masin aim of training staff for token economy systems

A

make sure it is standardised

109
Q

restoratative justice

what are the two main focusus’ of restoratative justice

A

help the ‘survivor’ of the crime to recover

help the offender to recover

110
Q

restoratative justice

what is the restoratative justice council

A

an independant body which establishes clear standards for restoratative justice and aids survivors and proffesionals in the field

Psychology (13 decks)

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