Gender Flashcards
sex and gender
What is definition of sex
A persons biological status as either male or female
Determined by chromosomes
These go on to influence hormonal and biological differences
sex and gender
What is the definition of gender
The psychological and cultural differences between males and females. Includes attitudes, roles and behaviours that we associate with being male or female and are heavily influenced by social norms.
It is fluid not fixed
sex and gender
What is gender identity disorder
When a person does not feel comfortable in their biologically determined sex
sex and gender
What can solve gender identity disorder
Gender reassignment surgery or becoming transgender
sex and gender
what was Imperato-McGinley’s research (Batista Boys)
studied unusual families in three villages in the Dominican Republic
37 of these children had inherited a mutant recessive gene from an 18th century ancestor
they were born with female genitals despite having XY chromosomes
when they hit puberty they had a surge in testosterone levels which lead to the production of dihydrotestosterone which lead to the development of male genitals
They reported no difficulty in adopting the male gender
sex and gender
What do the Batista boys tell us about gender roles
gender is mainly to do with nature not nurture
sex and gender
what is a sex-role stereotype
Shared expectations within a society or culture that people believe is usual or acceptable behaviours for men and women
sex and gender
what is an example of a sex-role stereotype
women being bad drivers
men hating shopping
androgyny
What is the definition of androgyny
An individual who displays equal levels of masculine and feminine traits / characteristics
androgyny
what are the beliefs of Sandra Bem
Gender schemas become the lenses through which we view the world and this means that society is structured in a way that empowers men not women
androgyny
What are the three beliefs that Bem says come around due to gender schema
men and women differ psychologically and sexually
men are the dominant and superior sex
these differences are natural
androgyny
how did Bem challenge the 2 traditional gender identities
added androgynous to the masculine and feminine identities
androgyny
How does the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) work
questionnaire on 60 characteristics-
20 masculine
20 feminine
20 neutral
participants rate each question scale of 1-7-
1- always true of me
7- never true of me
androgyny
what are the four classifications from the BSRI
Masculine
Feminine
Androgynous (High)
Undifferentiated (Low)
androgyny
what were Bem’s findings of the BSRI
more people were androgynous than extreme masculine or extreme feminine
masculinity and femininity are independent traits that are not inevitably down to sex
androgyny
Why did Bem say that androgynous people were more psychologically healthy
more comfortable with who they are
not expectations of how they should act
can handle situations in flexible manor
androgyny
what are the strengths of sex-role stereotypes and androgyny
high internal validity and test-retest reliability- 20 men and 20 women asked to rate 200 characteristics on how desirable they were for men and women. BSRI then piloted on 1000 students and then small follow up study done on smaller group of students
androgyny
what are the limitations of sex-role stereotypes and androgyny
poor temporal and cultural validity- BSRI developed over 40 years ago and only devised using western judges, both of which meaning the scale of what is masculine and what is feminine may be debatable
response bias- self-report questionnaire used which is subjective and on hypothetical ideas such as gender may lead to invalid results
too simplistic- spence argues that because gender is such a a complex thing it cannot be quantified by a set of traits so qualitative data must be collected for full insight
role of chromosomes
how many pairs of chromosomes does everybody have
23
role of chromosomes
what chromosomes do males have
XY
role of chromosomes
what chromosomes do females have
XX
role of chromosomes
what does the SRY gene do
causes the testes to develop, these then produce androgens (male sex genes) which cause the embryo to become male
roles of hormones
what are the roles of hormones in gender
determine a persons sex
induces gender development
act upon brain development and lead to development of reproductive organs in the womb
at puberty burst of hormonal activity leads to development of secondary sexual characteristics such as pubic hair
roles of hormones
what is the role of testosterone
controls development of male sex organs.
begins to be produced at 8 weeks as a foetus
link found between testosterone levels and aggression levels
Naan De Pol found that females injected with testosterone became more physically and sexually aggressive
roles of hormones
how is real-world application na strength of the role of testosterone
Wang found that out of 227 hypogonadal men who had testoerone therapy for 180 days many of them showed signs of:
improved sexual function, libido and mood
significant increase in muscle strength
roles of hormones
what is the role of oestrogen
determines female sex characteristics and menstruation
causes some women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability during their menstrual cycle (PMS)
roles of hormones
what is the role of oxytocin
causes contractions of the uterus during labour, stimulates lactation, reduces cortisol, and facilitates bonding
‘love hormone’ as makes mothers fall in love with their babies
fuelled stereotype women are more connected with their children than men
roles of chromosomes
how does the case of David Reimer support the role of nature (chromosomes) (AO3)
born a boy until penis burnt off
raised as a girl and given oestrogen and was unhappy
reverted back to a boy and was much happier
roles of hormones
what studies are a strength of the role of hormones (AO3)
Dabbs found that prisoners with highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent crimes
Vn Goozen studied transgender people and found male to female showed decreased aggression and female to male showed the opposite
roles of hormones
How does O’Connors study contradict the role of hormones
43 males were given either a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo injection and found no significant increases in aggression or frequency of intercourse
roles of hormones
How is PMS a limitation of the role of hormones
encourages damaging stereotypes of ‘irrational women’ which can affect the way females are treated (Rodin)
roles of hormones
What does Hofstede claim that challenges the role of hormones(AO3)
gender roles are more a consequence of social norms than biology. for example, in collectivist countries values are more masculine
atypical sex chromosome patterns
what chromosome structure do people with Klinefelter’s syndrome have
XXY
atypical sex chromosome patterns
how many people does Klinefelter’s syndrome effect
1 in every 500-1000 males
atypical sex chromosome patterns
what are the physical characteristics of Klinefelt’s syndrome
small amounts of body hair
breast tissue development
round body shape
gangly limbs
underdeveloped genitals
impaired coordination
general clumsiness
atypical sex chromosome patterns
what are the psychological characteristics of Klinefelt’s syndrome
poor language and reading ability
shyness
lack of sexual interest
struggle with memory and problem solving (executive functions)
atypical sex chromosome patterns
how many chromosomes do people with Turner’s syndrome have
45
atypical sex chromosome patterns
what is the chromosome patter known as in people with Turner’s syndrome
X0
atypical sex chromosome patterns
how many people are affected by Turner’s syndrome
1 in 5000 females
atypical sex chromosome patterns
what are the physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome
absence of menstrual cycle
underdeveloped ovaries
no breast development
webbed neck
looks physically immature
atypical sex chromosome patterns
what are the physchological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome
higher than average reading ability
spatial, visual and mathematic abilities lower
socially immature
trouble relating to others
atypical sex chromosome patterns
what are the strengths of atypical sex chromosome patterns
support the importance of nature in gender- people with abnormal sex chromosome patterns can be compared to those who don’t which can lead to understanding the differences between the two genders
real world application- Herlihy found that out of 87 people with Klinefelter’s syndrome those who were diagnosed earlier displayed less severe symptoms
atypical sex chromosome patterns
what are the limitations of atypical sex chromosome patterns
lack of generalisability- samples of people with unusual genetic makeup are unrepresentative and also are likely to be treated differently due to their different appearance.
harmful- self-fulfilling prophecy, children with K or T syndrome may expect to have trouble reading etc and not try and be treated differently by others which can increase the severity of their symptoms
cognitive explanations of gender development
what is the cognitive explanation for gender
focus on how children thinking develops as they grow. they focus on the child maturing which suggests all children must develop in the same way
cognitive explanations of gender development- Kohlberg
what was Kohlbergs theory for the cognitive explanations of gender
Gender identity
gender stability
gender constancy
cognitive explanations of gender development- Kohlberg
when does gender identity occur
2-3 years
cognitive explanations of gender development- Kohlberg
when does gender stability occur
4-5 years
cognitive explanations of gender development- Kohlberg
when does gender constancy occur
6+ years
cognitive explanations of gender development- Kohlberg
what is gender identity
child can identify their own gender
can identify the gender of others
do not understand that gender is fixed (boy- I want to be a mummy when I’m older)
cognitive explanations of gender development- Kohlberg
what is gender stability
realise they will always stay the same gender
thinks gender changes due to situation
believe gender can change due to activity
cognitive explanations of gender development- Kohlberg
what is gender constancy
realise gender remains constant for themselves and others
start to seek out gender appropriate role models
will see a man in a dress and still see it as a man
cognitive explanations of gender development- Kohlberg
what are the strengths of Kohlberg’s cognitive stage theory of gender
supporting evidence- Slaby and Frey showed children a split screen with a male and a female doing the same task, younger children spent equal amounts of time watching each and older children spent longer watching the same sex role model
good generalisability and validity- Munroe found found cross-cultural evidence for Kohlberg’s theory in Samoa, Kenya and Nepal, shows gender identity aligns with IQ development
cognitive explanations of gender development- Kohlberg
what are the weaknesses of Kohlberg’s cognitive stage theory of gender
contradictory evidence- Bussey and Bandura found 4 year olds reported ‘feeling good’ when playing with gender appropriate toys and ‘feeling bad’ when playing with gender inappropriate toys
lack of validity- Kohlberg used interviews with 2-3 years olds to base theory of of- the lack vocal, may struggle to comprehend questions and may not be able to convey more complex feelings about gender
over simplified- Martin suggested there are two stages of gender constancy. first degree before 6 which orients children to the importance of gender and a second degree after 6 which heightens childrens responsiveness to gender norms
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
what is the definition of schema
mental constructs that develop via experience and are used by our cognitive system to organise knowledge around particular topics such as gender
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
what did Martin and Halverson believe
when a child has established gender identity (2-3) they will begin to search the environment for information which encourages the development of gender schema
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
How does Martin and Halverson’s theory contrast Kohlberg’s
Kohlberg believes that gender development doesn’t begin until gender constancy is reached at 6
M and H believes it occurs at gender identity at 2-3 years old
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
what did Martin and Little find in an experiment which supports the gender schema theory
children as young as 2-3 demonstrated strongly sex-typed behaviours and attitudes
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
what do Martin and Halverson believe happens when a child reaches gender constancy
they have a fixed and stereotypical view of their gender and are likely to misremember or ignore information that does not fit with their existing schema
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
what did Martin and Halverson do to prove the gender schema theory
showed 20 children under 6 twenty photos of men and women doing activities
10 photos were gender consistent and 10 weren’t
a week later the children recall of the photos was tested
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
what were the findings of Martin and Halverson’s study on gender schema
15 out of 20 children were more likely to recall gender consistent photos
children often changed the sex of the person in gender inconsistent photos
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
what are in groups and out groups
children have a much better understanding of the schemas that relate to their own gender
their own group is an ‘in-group’ and the other is the ;out group;
in groups identity serves to boost the Childs self-esteem
it is not until about 8 children build more complex schemas regarding both genders
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
what experiment did Martin do on in groups and out groups
91 were children were showed various toys with different levels of attractiveness
some were labelled boy toys and some were labelled girl toys
the child was then asked to rate the attractiveness of the toys to themselves and others to a different experimenter
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
what did Martin find in his experiment on in groups and out groups
children liked toys less if they were labelled for the other sex and expected other children to do the same
this applied to attractive and unattractive toys
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
what are the strengths of the gender schema theory
supporting evidence- Martin and Halverson’s gender photo recall showed children under 6 showed gender development
accounts for cultural differences- Cherry says that GS influences what counts ts as culturally appropriate gender behaviour. in societies with less rigid gender perceptions options there are more noon-standard stereotypes. the psychodynamic and biological explanations cannot do this
cognitive explanations of gender development- gender schema theory
What are the limitations of gender schema theory
contradictory evidence- Zoslous analysed 82 cases of 9-21 month old reports and videos and found that children could refer to themselves as a boy or a girl by about 19 months. this proves that M and H underestimated children ability to label themselves
hard determinist- GST ignores the role of parents and role of rewards etc and other social or psychological factors
psychodynamic explanation of gender development
what stage did Freud believe gender development occurred
phallic stage (third)
psychodynamic explanation of gender development
what did Freud believe causes gender identity to occur
oedipus/Electra complex
psychodynamic explanation of gender development
what is a strength of psychodynamic explanations
supporting evidence- Rekkers and Morey rated the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 and found that 75% of the ones labelled as gender disturbed didn’t have a biological or adoptee father figure. this supports ftreuds idea that to achieve gender identity a child must have a same sex parent
psychodynamic explanation of gender development
Describe the case study of little hans
psychodynamic explanation of gender development
what are the limitations of the psychodynamic explanations for gender
contrasting evidence- Bos and Sanford found there were no differences in development of gender identity in 63 children with lesbian parents compared with 68 children with heterosexual parents, contrasting Freud’s belief that a father must be present
androcentric- Horney argues that men’s womb envy is more prominent than womens penis envy and frauds idea of penis envy was reflecting the era he worked in, this challenges freuds theory that female gender development was founded on them wanting to be a man- ‘femininity is a failed expression of masculinituy’
pseudoscience- lack of falsification due to focus on unconscious thoughts
social learning theory of gender development
what are the key assumptions of the social learning theory of gender
all behaviour is learnt from observation of others
role of environment is important in gender
role models include: teachers, parents, peers, media etc
social learning theory of gender development
what is differential reinforcement
when boys and girls are treated differently for the same behaviours. for example, a boy may be punished for being clingy with their mother but for a girl it would be considered ‘cute’
social learning theory of gender development
what type of reinforcement is differential reinforcement a demonstration of
direct reinforcement
social learning theory of gender development
what is vicarious reinforcement
when a child is more or less likely to do something based off how the behaviour is received when they see another person do it
social learning theory of gender development
how does vicarious reinforcement link to gender development
if a girl or boy sees someone of their gender being praised for doing something stereotypical for their gender they are more likely to replicate it.
social learning theory of gender development
what is identification and modelling
when a child finds a role model and tries to identify with them and recreate their behaviour
social learning theory of gender development
what processes are linked with identification and modelling
the meditational processes
social learning theory of gender development
what are the meditational processes
attention
retention
motor reproduction
motivation
social learning theory of gender development
what are the strengths of the SLT of gender
supporting evidence- Smith and Lloyd dressed half of a sample of babies as boys and the other half as girls irrespective of gender and found ‘boys’ were encouraged to be active and adventurous and ‘girls’ were encouraged to be passive and were called pretty. shows gender appropriate behaviour is stamped in through differential reinforcement
supporting evidence- Perry and Bussey made 20 boys and 20 girls aged 8-10 watch a man and a woman pick a fruit out of a bowl of fruit- the man would always pick an orange and the woman would always pick a banana. they found that in most cases the children picked the same fruit as the same sex role model supporting the importance of identification and modelling.
explains cultural differences
social learning theory of gender development
what are the limitations of the SLT of gender
deterministic- nature could go hand in hand with nurture as the reason boys are encouraged to be more active and aggressive is because they naturally are (testosterone). shows differential reinforcement does not cause gender differences.
ignores influence of ageing and maturity as implied that modelling gender appropriate behaviour can happen at any age which is unrealistic and contradicted by theories such as Kohlbergs
influence of culture on gender roles
how has cross cultural research contributed to the gender debate
contributed to the nature-nurture side of the debate. for example, if a certain gender role is present across cultures it proves it is innate, whereas if it is only seen in some cultures then it shows it is due to socialisation and the environment
influence of culture on gender roles
what did Mead find about the Arapesh tribe
both men and women were gentle and responsive- much like the western stereotypes for femininity
influence of culture on gender roles
what did Mead find out about the Mundugumor tribe
both men and women were aggressive and hostile- much like the western stereotypes for masculinity
influence of culture on gender roles
what did Mead find out about the Tchambuli tribe
Women were dominant and took care of village life and trade etc. whilst the men were decorative and viewed as being unable to make I’m;ortant decisions
influence of culture on gender roles
what did Mead’s studies suggest about gender
there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender
gender roles may be culturally determined
she believed there were some innate gender typical behaviours , but the extent to which they were expressed was down to cultural norms.
influence of culture on gender roles
what was Buss’ experiment
looked at mate preference across 37 different countries in all the continents
influence of culture on gender roles
what were Buss’ findings
in all countries:
men looked for youth and physical attractiveness
women looked for men who could offer wealth and resources
influence of culture on gender roles
what did Munroe and Munroe’s study show
is most societies division of labour is organised by gender- men are typically breadwinners and women are typically nurturers
influence of culture on gender roles
what is a strength of the influence of culture on gender
supporting evidence- Hofstede said that in industrialised nations women are more widely expected to be in the workplace and not in the home whereas in more traditional societies the woman is still expected to be the ‘house-maker’. This shows that gender roles ARE determined by cultural context
influence of culture on gender roles
what is a limitation of the influence of culture on gender
Mead’s research lacks validity and was biased- Freeman did a follow up study in Samoa and concluded Mead was guilty of an imposed etic and did not separate her own opinions from what she saw (observer bias) and made large generalisations.
influence of media on gender roles
How does the media effect gender roles
The media provides role models who children may identify with and want to imitate. Children are likely to select role models who engage in gender appropriate behaviours as this is more likely to be positively reinforced
influence of media on gender roles
What did Bussey snd Bandura find about men and women in media
Men shown as independent, ambitious ‘advice givers’
Women shown as dependant, unambiguous ‘advice seekers’
influence of media on gender roles
What did Furnham and Farragher say about TV adverts and gender roles
Men more likely to be shown in autonomous roles in professional settings
Women more likely to be shown as having family roles in a domestic setting
influence of media on gender roles
What is self-efficacy
When the media gives someone an idea of how likely they are to do something in the future. For example if a child sees a role model doing a gender appropriate job they will think they are likely to do that in the future
influence of media on gender roles
What did Mitra find about self-efficacy
Girls in India who watched a programme challenging gender roles were more likely to think they could have a job outside the house than non-viewers
influence of media on gender roles
What was the Notel, Unitel, Multitel experiment
In the 70’s a town in British Colombia was about to get TV for the first time, Tannis Williams called the place ‘Notel’
Surveys were done on the people of this town as well as two neighbouring towns- Unitel (one TV channel) and Multitel (multiple TV channels)
Williams noted how gender-stereotypical attitudes among the children of the two towns changed over 2 years
influence of media on gender roles
What were the findings of the Notel, Unitel, Multitel experiment
At the start- Notel and Unitel showed less gender-typed views and gender stereotype behaviours
By the end- gender- typed views and gender role stereotypes increases in Notel
influence of media on gender roles
What are the strengths of media influencing gender roles
Supporting evidence- cultivation theory argues the more TV a person watches the more likely they are to believe this reflects reality. Bond and Drogos found that people who watched ‘Jersey shore’ had more positive attitudes towards casual sex
Supporting evidence- Pingree found that pre-adolescent boys stereotypes became stronger following exposure to non-traditional models on TV while it decreased the strength of girls gender stereotypes. Shows boys are more ‘set in their ways’ and there is a big difference between the two genders preconceptions of the others role
influence of media on gender roles
What are the weaknesses of media influencing gender roles
Contradictory evidence- Pingee’s study shows how not all media reinforces gender stereotypes
Simplistic- Durkin argues that even very young children are not effected by media messages and that family norms are more important. If a gender stereotype on TV does not align with the families view it will likely be rejected. Shows that media influences are secondary to other influences.
atypical gender development- biological
What is gender dysphoria
When someone feels they have been ‘born in the wrong body’
atypical gender development- biological
What is the brain sex theory
Gender dysphoria is caused by specific brain structures which are incompatible with a persons biological sex, this is especially true with dimorphic brain areas
atypical gender development- biological
What are dimorphic brain areas
Areas of the brain that are different in men and women
atypical gender development- biological
What was Zhou’s study
Studied a dimorphic area called the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST) in 6 transgender women
atypical gender development- biological
What did Zhou find
In transgender females their BST was the size of a biological female (40% smaller)
atypical gender development- biological
What was Kruikver’s study
Looked at the number of neurons in the BST in transgender females
atypical gender development- biological
What did Kruijver find
Transgender females had the same neuron density in the BST then biological females
atypical gender development- biological
What was coolidges study
Looked at 96 MZ twins and and 61 DZ twins for evidence of GD
atypical gender development- biological
What did Coolidge find
Found that 62% of the variance could be accounted to genetic factors
atypical gender development
What was Heylens study
Compared 23 MZ twins to 21 DZ twins where one of them was diagnosed with GD
atypical gender development- biological
What did Heylens find
39% of MZ twins both had GD
0% of DZ both had GD
atypical gender development- biological
What is a strength of the biological explanation for gender dysphoria
Supporting evidence- Rametti studied white matter (dimorphic) in transgender females before hormone treatment and found their levels aligned with biological females
atypical gender development- biological
What is a limitation of the biological explanation of of gender dysphoria
Zhou and Kruijver both did their studies post-mortem on people who had already undergone hormone treatment. Huskhoff-pol used MRI scans to look at BST during treatment and found the size of it changed significantly
atypical gender development- social
What is the theory of gender constructionism
Argues that gender concepts are ‘invented by societies’
Suggests GD is ‘confusion’ as society forces them to be a man or a woman
atypical gender development- social
What was McClintock’s study
Studied individuals with the genetic condition 5 alpha reductase deficiency in the Sambia of New Guinea
These people start off as biological females and when hit puberty become males
This was accepted as normal by the people in this society
atypical gender development- social
What did McClintock find the impact of the west on the kwolu-aatmwol was
They became judged as having a form of gender dysphoria and seen as abnormal instead of normal like they used to be
atypical gender development- social (psychoanalytic)
What did overson and person argue caused GD in males
When the child experiences extreme separation anxiety
The child fantasises of symbiotic fusion (where they are so close they are like one person)
This would reduces separation anxiety
atypical gender development- social (psychoanalytic)
What are the consequences of extreme separation anxiety on a male child
He almost ‘becomes the mother’ and identifies with her so strongly that he internalises her gender identity
atypical gender development- social (psychoanalytic)
What did Stoller find which supports the idea that GD in males is caused by separation anxiety
Found in interviews that men with GD displayed overly close relationships with their mother.
atypical gender development- social
What is a strength of the theory of social explanations for gender
Support for social constructionism- in Samoa there are three genders with the third being the fa’afafine who are biological men who adapt the roles of women. Shows that GD is a social construct instead of a biological fact
atypical gender development- social (psychoanalytic)
What is an issue with the social theory of atypical gender development
Overset and Persons experiment only applies to men
Rekers suggests gender disturbance in men is more likely to be associated with the absence of a father rather than fear of separation from the mother
‘Separation anxiety’ is untestable as it is an unconscious concept and very subjective
sex and gender
What was Ingalhalikar’s research that supports sex role stereotypes
Scanned 949 young men and women, using diffusion MRI imaging and mapped out connections between different parts of the brain.
Findings
Women’s brains had better connections left and right sides of the brain
Men’s brains display more intense activity in individual parts, especially cerebellum
Conclusion
Females better at multi tasking, mens brains are wired to focus on one task more intensely
role of chromosomes and hormones
what pair of chromosomes determines sex
final pair (23rd)
role of chromosomes and hormones
what is the role in chromosomes in gender
determine sex
role of chromosomes and hormones
what is the role of hormones in gender
develops sex
role of chromosomes and hormones
what is the role of hormones prenatally
brain and organ development
role of chromosomes and hormones
what is the role of hormones post natally
determine secondary sexual characteristics at puberty
pyschodynamic explanations
when did freud say gender development occured
phallic stage
before this children have no concept of gender
pyschodynamic explanations
how does internalisation and identification lead to gender identity
children overcome comnplex by identifying with same sex parent
this involves kids taking on the gender identity of their same sex parent- this is internalisation
pyschodynamic explanations
how does little hans support oedipus complex
freud said hans fear of horses with blinkers and black around mouth came from fear of castration from his father
