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Industrial Hygiene > Ionizing Radiation > Flashcards

Ionizing Radiation Flashcards

1
Q

What is radiation?

A

Energy in the form of rays (waves) or corpuscles (particles) that emanate from a source

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2
Q

Describe background radiation

A

cosmos produces radiation & sun emits radiation, but only small amount reaches the earth

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3
Q

What happens to most of the energy produced by the cosmos?

A

energy lost when passing though the atmosphere

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4
Q

Is life still exposed to cosmic radiation?

A

yes

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5
Q

Where is cosmic radiation exposure the strongest?

A

at the poles and high elevations

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6
Q

What are the types of ionizing radiation?

A
  • alpha
  • beta
  • gama
  • x rays
  • neutrons
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7
Q

What are the types of nonionizing radiation?

A
  • UV
  • Visible
  • IR
  • Microwave/ RF
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8
Q

What is ionizing radiation?

A

particles with enough energy to push electrons out of a material and generate ions

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9
Q

What is nonionizing radiation?

A
  • particles that have enough energy to excite atoms into higher energy state, but cannot ionize
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10
Q

What effects can nonionizing radiation have?

A

radiation and field effects

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11
Q

what is the name of the measurement for exposure (x)

A

roentgen

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12
Q

What is the name of the measurement for absorbed dose (D)?

A

Rad or gray

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13
Q

What is the measurement for activity (A)?

A

CUrie or becquerel

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14
Q

What is the measurement for dose equivalent (H)

A

roentgen equivalent in man or sievert

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15
Q

What are the types of ionizing particles?

A
  • Alpha
  • Beta
  • Neutrons
  • Protons
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16
Q

Are ionizing particles charged?

A

They can be charged or uncharged

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17
Q

What are the types of ionizing electromagnetic waves

A

gamma rays

x rays

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18
Q

What are radioactive materials?

A

unstable forms of elements (radioisotopes or radionuclides) that decay to stable elements

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19
Q

What happens to radioactive materials as they decay?

A

emit ionizing radiation

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20
Q

Where are radioactive materials found? where are they more concentrated?

A

soil, water, air

more concentrated in houses, mines

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21
Q

What size elements are unstable?

A

Anything heavier than 209Bismuth

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22
Q

What is radioactive decay?

A

atom moves from an unstable to a stable state resulting in a series of emissions of energy and or matter from the atom

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23
Q

Do all radioactive elements decay into a stable element?

A

No- some decay into different radioisotopes until they are finally stable

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24
Q

Is there always radiation with radioactive material?

A

Yes

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25
Q

Does radiation always come from radioactive material?

A

no- can be artificially generated

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26
Q

Are electron microscopes radioactive?

A

No

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27
Q

What is the defining characteristic of radioactive materials?

A

radioactivity

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28
Q

Does the presence of radiation always imply a radioactive source

A

No

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29
Q

How do radiation-producing machines work?

A

Accelerate a beam of electrons in a vacuum tube and emit x-rays

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30
Q

Can radiation-producing machines be turned on and off?

A

yes

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31
Q

Give examples of radiation producing machines

A

medical devises, security, electron microscopes

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32
Q

How do nuclear reactors work?

A

Split large atoms (fission) by bombarding them with neutrons and generate energy (heat)

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33
Q

What type of testing has left some residues of radioactive material in the atmosphere?

A

nuclear weapons testing

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34
Q

What are the different forms for sources of ionizing radiation?

A
  • sealed sources
  • radiation machines
  • radioisotopes + machine
  • unique radioisotopes
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35
Q

What are the examples of radiation machines sources?

A
  • x rays

- computed (axial) tomography (CAT Scan)

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36
Q

What are the examples of radioisotopes + machine sources?

A
  • Positron emission tomography (PET, gamma)

- research

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37
Q

What are examples of unique radioisotopes?

A
  • U & Pu

- Hydrogen 3- tritium

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38
Q

Name workplaces where one would find ionizing radiation?

A
  • healthcare
  • radiography
  • refineries & chemical plants
  • fracking
  • airport screeners (TSA)
  • research
  • nuclear plants
  • weapons
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39
Q

What workplaces would one find nonionizing radiation?

A
  • outdoor occupations
  • ovens, molten metal
  • power transmission
  • welding
  • radar
  • lasers
  • electrical equipment
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40
Q

What is the relationship between the number of protons and nuetrons in the typical atom?

A

usually the same

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41
Q

When doesn’t the atom have an electrical charge?

A

when protons and electrons are the same

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42
Q

What are ions?

A

atoms of molecules in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons (net positive or negative charge)

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43
Q

Give an example of a radioactive element

A

Uranium

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44
Q

What is given off as a heavy, unstable element like uranium decays?

A
  • alpha particles
  • gamma rays
  • protons
  • beta particles (electrons)
  • neutrons
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45
Q

What type of ionizing radiation is the alpha particle?

A

corpuscular ionizing radiation

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46
Q

How many protons/ neutrons do alpha particles have?

A

2 neutrons/ 2 protons (Helium nucleus)

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47
Q

Do all alpha particles have the same energy?

A

yes

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48
Q

How do alpha particles interact with other substances?

A
  • quick interaction with substances and creation of ions

- high ionization along path of emission, releases energy all in one place

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49
Q

What type of LET do alpha particles have?

A

High linear energy

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50
Q

Are alpha particles externally dangerous?

A

No- short range and easily stopped

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51
Q

Are alpha particles dangerous internally?

A

through inhalation or ingestion - very damaging to cells

52
Q

Give examples of alpha emitters

A

U-238, Pu-238, Pu-239, Ra-226, Rn-222, Po-210, Am-241

53
Q

What is LET?

A

linear energy transfer

54
Q

What type of radiation are beta particles?

A

corpuscular ionizing radiation

55
Q

What are beta particles and how are they formed?

A

Electrons & Positrons emitted by radioactive material

- breakup of a neutron into electrons and positrons

56
Q

How do beta particles interact with other atoms?

A

interact with electrons of materials they go through and ionize

57
Q

Compare LET between alpha and beta particles

A

Beta- less interaction than alpha particles and low LET

58
Q

What are secondary x-rays produced when a beta moves through a material?

A

Bremsstrahlung radiation

59
Q

Do beta particles have natural or artificial sources?

A

both

60
Q

What industries use beta particles?

A

medical research and industrial applications

61
Q

What do health effects of beta particles depend on?

A

Skin, Eye, and Internal Health risk

62
Q

Give examples of low energy b emitters

A

H-3, C-14, S-35, Pu-241

63
Q

Give Examples of high-energy b emitters

A

P-31, Sr-90, I-131

64
Q

What type of ionizing radiation are neutrons?

A

corpuscular ionizing radiation

65
Q

What is a neutron?

A

neutral charge from the nucleus of the atom

66
Q

What are the different energy levels of the neutron?

A
  • High- travel farther, penetrate more

- Low- less travel distance, less penetration

67
Q

What are the health risk and exposure risks of neutrons?

A

Significant health risk, rare exposure except near reactors or accelerators

68
Q

How can workers be shielded from neutrons?

A

high-hydrogen content- water, paraffin, concrete

69
Q

What type of ionizing radiation are protons?

A

corpuscular ionizing radiation

70
Q

What are protons?

A

positive charge inside the atom’s nucleus

71
Q

How often are protons encountered?

A

rarely

72
Q

What careers may be concerned about protons?

A

astronauts, doctors, researchers

73
Q

Describe the LET of protons

A

lose energy relatively slowly (low LET) until energy spike at the end of their path (high LET)

74
Q

What wavelengths are capable of producing ionization?

A

<300 nm

75
Q

Energy is directly related to ____

A

frequency

76
Q

What is directly proportional to E & F

A

wavelength

77
Q

What are gamma rays?

A

energy emission (photons) from the nucleus as a result of radioactive decay

78
Q

What is the health risk for gamma rays?

A

significant health risk

79
Q

What are examples of low energy gamma rays

A

I-125, I-129, Am- 241

80
Q

What are examples of medium - high energy gamma rays?

A

I-131, Cs-137, Co-60, Ir-192

81
Q

What are x-rays?

A

energy emission (photons) from the outside of the nucleus when electrons drop to lower energy orbitals

82
Q

How can x-rays be artificially produced

A

bombardment of a target chemical with high speed electrons

83
Q

What is the health risk with x-rays?

A

significant health risk

84
Q

What are the different energy and wavelengths for x-rays?

A
  • Hard- shorter wavelength, higher energy, more penetrating

- Soft- longer wavelength, lower energy, less penetrating

85
Q

Describe penetration of alpha, beta, and gamma rays

A

alpha- easily stopped, does not penetrate

beta- penetrates skin, stopped by aluminum

gamma- penetrates and stopped by thick lead

86
Q

Increased energy to tissue ___ risk

A

increases

87
Q

What are the key components for any radiation?

A

1) source
2) transmission
3) receiver

88
Q

Describe the historical health effects of radiation?

A

X-rays used since 1898- medical personnel had damage to hands (deterministic exposure) and developed cancer (stochastic exposure)

89
Q

When are deterministic effects experienced?

A

When dose is high enough

90
Q

What is a deterministic effect?

A

Severity of the outcome depends on the dose

91
Q

How can you avoid deterministic effects?

A

stay below threshold

92
Q

What are examples of deterministic effects?

A
  • radiation detmatitis
  • cataracts
  • sterility
  • microcephaly of babies
  • mental retardation of babies
93
Q

What are stochastic effects?

A

Occur by chance and without a threshold dose, all or nothing

94
Q

Describe risk of stochastic effects

A
  • risk of developing condition of disease increase with increase in exposure but only a fraction of those exposed develop the health effects
95
Q

describe severity of stochastic effects

A

severity the same regardless of exposure

96
Q

What are examples of stochastic effects

A
  • smoking and lung cancer (all get the same cancer regardless of the amount smoked)
  • birth defects & genetic diseases
97
Q

What are chronic health effects of ionizing radiation?

A

1) lung cancer
2) leukemia
3) decreased lifespan

98
Q

What are acute health effects of ionizing radiation?

A

1) damage to central nervous system
2) damage to inner lining of GI tract, esp. intestinal villi
3) immune system: destruction of leukocytes (WBC) and stem cells
4) skin burns

99
Q

What is the average annual dose to natural background radiation?

A

2.4 mSv

100
Q

How can uranium cause cancer?

A

breaks into smaller atoms and particles that enter human cell, strike nucleus and damage DNA. Causing it to divide uncontrollably- cancer

101
Q

What is the difference between exposure and contamination?

A

Exposure- energy transmitted to the target in the body

Contamination- radioactive substance on an external surface or in a medium (air, water…) that can usually be removed

102
Q

Can you have exposure and contamination independent of one another? and together?

A

can have exposure only, exposure and contamination, and contamination only

103
Q

Are contaminated substances intrinsically radioactive?

A

no

104
Q

If contamination removed is the substance still radioactive?

A

no

105
Q

What is the general term for measuring devices for ionizing radiation?

A

ionization devices

106
Q

How do ionization devices work?

A

air molecules in sealed chamber are ionized- current proportional to the exposure

107
Q

What are examples of area samplers used for ionization?

A
  • ionization chambers
  • Geiger Mueller counters
  • Proportional counters
108
Q

What are the limitations of ionization devices?

A

have limitations with low-energy photon materials

109
Q

instrument where molecules are ionized producing an emission of light related to the energy output and unique energy level of the specific type of radioisotope

A

scintillation counters

110
Q

What are personal sampling devices for ionizing radiation?

A

1) dosimeter
2) Film badges
3) Thermoluminescence Detector
4) Pocket dosimeter

111
Q

Describe dosimeters

A
  • passive or instant read
  • multiple detectors sensitive to multiple types of radiation or may need to wear multiple
  • extremity monitoring common (ie ring)
  • do have electronic, limited in functionality
112
Q

What is the difference between passive dosimeter and instant read dosimeters?

A

passive- worn for a while then evaluated

Instant read- give immediate result but not available for as wide a range of radiation types as passive

113
Q

Describe film badges

A

film exposed to radiation and developed (obsolete)

114
Q

Describe TLDs

A
  • lithium fluoride reacts with radiation and electrons are excited
  • readout device heats the TLD, excites electrons, and they emit light proportional to exposure
115
Q

Describe the pocket dosimeter

A

Electrostatic charging of a fiber wand that moves along a scale

116
Q

What is calibration necessary for?

A

Electronic dosimeters

117
Q

What other sampling methods are used for ionizing radiation?

A
  • stationary monitors
  • wipe sampling
  • alpha track detectors (radon)
118
Q

How are wipe samples read?

A

with scintillators

119
Q

What are the main controls for ionizing radiation?

A

1) Keep dose ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable)
2) Time (1/2 the time, 1/2 the exposure)
3) Distance (Dose rate decreases with increased distance)
4) Shielding

120
Q

What is the equation for distance?

A

DR2=DR1 x r1^2/r2^2

121
Q

DR2=DR1 x r1^2/r2^2

What is DR1 and r?

A

DR- dose rate

r1- distance from the point source

122
Q

SLIDE 4/486- Equation

A

Slide 46- Equation

123
Q

What is the half value layer?

A

thickness of a material required to stop half of the radiation

124
Q

What are additional controls for ionizing radiation?

A
  • PPE
  • Education
  • Need to consider other characteristics such as the chemical nature of a radioisotope
  • overall radiation safety program
125
Q

What are the concerns with ionizing radiation?

A
  • money and technology to handle radioactive waste- store locally vs. 1 central storage site?

Industrial Hygiene (12 decks)

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