Introductory Notes. Flashcards
Define aponeurosis?
A sheet of white fibrous tissue that takes the place of a tendon in sheetlike muscles.
Define avascular?
Does not have good blood supply.
What does the prefix chondro usually refer to?
Cartilage.
What are chondrocytes?
The only cells that are found in healthy cartilage.
What is the job of chondrocytes?
They maintain the cartilaginous matrix.
What does the word distal refer to?
A location that is further away from the body.
Define fascia?
A type of connective tissue that wraps around organs, providing support and holding parts together.
Define impermeable?
When a tissue will not allow fluid to pass through it.
Define perichondrium?
Dense connective tissue that surrounds cartilage where it is not at a joint.
What does the word proximaal refer to?
A location that closer to the body.
Define retinacula?
Thickened areas of deep fascia that are used for holding tendons in place.
Define subcuatneous?
Under the skin.
Define a tendon?
Tough connective tissue that attaches muscles to bones.
Anatomy is the study of what?
The form and structure of the body.
Are there many similarities in the anatomy of animals of different species?
Yes.
What are the 2 sub-categories of anatomy?
Gross anatomy.
Micro-anatomy.
What part of anatomy does gross anatomy deal with?
The organs and tissues that are visible to the naked eye.
What is gross anatomy also known as?
Macroscopic anatomy.
Usually, gross anatomy is based upon making observation using what?
A dead body.
Why is gross anatomy often described as systematic anatomy?
Because, it is descriptive and takes into account the relationships between various tissues and organs.
How can gross anatomy be applied clinically?
When diagnosing an issue or illness.
What is the practice of comparing anatomical features of different species known as?
Taxonomy.
What anatomy does micro anatomy deal with?
It deals with organs and tissues that are microscopic
What are the 2 sub categories of micro anatomy?
Embryology.
Histology.
What kind of anatomy does embryology deal with?
It deals with the study of the developing embryo.
What kind of anatomy does histology deal with?
It deals with the microscopic structure of the tissues.
What are cells made out of?
Protoplasm and various other substances.
What is formed when a number of cells of the same kind combine together?
A tissue.
What is formed when a number of tissues come together?
They combine to form an organ.
Is it possible for an organ to have a smaller organ within it?
Yes.
The finger is a defined organ within the hand.
What is formed when different organs work together?
A system.
E.g. The skeletal system or the respiratory system.
What can a surgical plane be described as?
The ability of a cutting edge to create straight lines.
Can planes ever be curved?
No.
What is the medial plane?
A surgical plane that divides an animal into 2 halves.
If the animal is divided into 2 unequal halves, has the knife passed through the medial plane?
No.
If a surgeon makes 2 cuts to the left of the medial plane, are the lateral or medial to the medial plane?
They are lateral to the medial plane.
However, the cut that is closest to the medial plane is medial to the cut that is furthest away.
Can there be more than 1 surgical plane?
Yes, but there can only be 1 medial plane.
How would a surgeon transect the limb?
They would make a right angled cut through the limb of an animal.
What would be the transverse plane of an animal?
Through the limb.
Which organs of the body contain connective tissue?
Almost all of them.
What is the job of connective tissue?
To help bind different organs together e.g. tendons.
Can blood be described as a connective tissue?
Yes.
What kind of density does connective tissue have?
Different densities. From very dense bone, to a few loose fibres or even liquids such as blood.
What connective tissues are vets mainly concerned with?
Solid connective tissues that have a high fibre content.
What is loose connective tissue formed from?
A jelly like matrix that has no defined shape and a few cells thrown in.
What kind of tissue holds cells together to form a tissue?
Loose connective tissue.
How is dense connective tissue is similar to loose connective tissue?
There are more fibres involved.
What is dense connective tissue made up of?
Tightly packed tough, white fibrous tissue that has a regular arrangement and is non-elastic.
What are the 3 fibre types that most dense connective tissue will contain at least one of?
Collagen.
Elastic fibres.
Reticular fibres.
Describe the 3 main characteristics of collagen?
White in colour.
Very strong.
Non elastic.
What is the main job of collagen?
To provide strength to connective tissue.
What main connective tissues are mainly made of collagen?
Tendons.
What are the 4 main characteristics of elastic fibres?
Yellow in colour.
Thinner fibres than collagen.
Stretchy.
The fibres often branch and unite.
What kind of connective tissues are made of elastic fibres?
Vocal cords.
Describe reticular fibres?
They are very thin fibres that form networks between cells so that tissues and organs can be formed.
What are 2 common types of connective tissue that found in mammals?
Aponeurosis.
Regular tendons.
Describe the structure of aponeurosis?
They are large flat tendons that have fibres running in 2 different planes.
What 2 directions do the fibres run in aponeurosis?
Cranio to caudal (head to tail) and dorsal to ventral (top to bottom).
Describe the fibres found in regular tendons and ligaments?
They are unidirectional or run parallel to each other.
These fibres accumulate to form a dense structure that is very strong.
Is areolar connective tissue loose or dense connective tissue?
Loose.
What is areolar connective tissue composed of?
Collagen and a few elastic fibres.
The word areolar describes what about areolar connective tissue?
The word areolar means small spaces and the spaces found in areolar CT are filled with air.
Why is areolar connective tissue found in high mobility areas?
It is very loose meaning that it is in areas that require mobility e.g. the skin.
What is the function of areolar connective tissue and where is it found?
It has a supportive function and is found around body structures such as blood vessels and abdominal organs.
What is fascia?
A type of connective tissue that wraps around organs to provide support and hold them together.
What are the 2 types of fascia?
Superficial fascia.
Deep fascia.
What is the superficial fascia also known as?
Subcutis.
Hypodermis.
Where is the superficial fascia found?
Just below the skin (subcutaneous) in locations where there is space,
Why can superficial fascia be thought of as a filler tissue?
Because it can be found between the skin and the underlying structures.
Superficial fascia is made of what kind of connective tissue?
Areolar connective tissue and is therefore quite loose.
Why is the superficial fascia a good injection site?
Because its loose nature can take in large volumes of fluid.
What type of fascia will fat cells accumulate in?
In the superficial fascia.
What is subcutaneous fascia that has accumulated a lot of fat cells known as?
Panniculus adiposus.
Where is deep fascia found?
Below the superficial fascia.
What tissues will deep fascia surround?
The different muscles and it will break them into groups giving them shape.
Is deep fascia permeable or impermeable?
Deep fascia is fairly impermeable and it will stop any material from entering the muscle.
Which fluids can spread amongst the deep fascia?
Fluids such as puss.
Can some muscles may use the deep fascia as a point of attachment?
Yes.
What kind of connective tissue is used to make up deep fascia and how is it arranged?
Deep fascia tends to be made of tough tissue and is arranged into fibrous sheets.
What kind of connective tissue is cartilage?
A solid or specialised connective tissue.
What is cartilage made up of?
A gel like matrix formed of hyaluronic acid and proteoglycans.
What spaces are found in cartilage and what is often found in these spaces?
Spaces called lacunae.
What is often found in the lacunae spaces within cartilage?
Chondrocytes.
What is perichondrium?
A type of dense connective tissue that surrounds some areas of cartilage.
What are the 3 types of cartilage?
Hyaline cartilage.
Elastic cartilage.
Fibrocartilage.
What colour is hyaline cartilage?
Bluish white in colour and it is translucent.
What is hyaline cartilage formed of?
A matrix mixed that contains a ground substance. Examples of hyaline cartilage would be nose cartilage or the cartilage found in the larynx.
Is hyaline cartilage surrounded by perichondrium?
No.
Can elastic cartilage stretch?
Yes.
What fibres make up elastic cartilage?
Yellow elastic fibres that are arranged into a matrix.
Where is elastic cartilage often found?
In the epiglottis or the auricle.
What kind of fibres is fibrocartilage made up of?
Many collagen fibres.
Which type of cartilage contains the most fibres?
Fibrocartilage..
What is fibrocartilage designed to withstand?
Strong forces.
Fibrocartilage is always associated with what kind of connective tissue?
Dense connective tissue.
Where is fibrocartilage often found?
In the intervertebral discs.
What is the most dense form of connective tissue?
Bone.
Does bone have any elasticity?
No.
It is completely non-elastic.
What is bine composed of?
A mixture of matrix and cells.
What is the matrix that makes up bone composed of?
Around 35% fibres.
65% inorganic salts. of which around 58% are calcium and phosphorous and 7% is carbon.
All the bones in the body form which system?
The skeletal system whose function is to give support and form to the body.
What kind of movement do the bones allow the body to perform?
Locomotion or different bones can act as a lever for movement of one part of the body relative to another.
Can bones protect organs?
Yes e.g. the skull protects the brain from shocks.
Bones are an important reserve for what minerals?
Calcium and phosphate.
How much blood is delivered to the bones?
Around 5-10%.
What are the 3 main types of bone?
Long bones. E.g. Limb bones.
Short bones. E.g. Carpal and vertebral bones.
Flat bones. E.g. Cranial bones.
What type of bones tend to fracture most easily?
Long bones.
Where are long bones mainly found?
In the limbs e.g. the tibia, humerus and femur.
Describe the anatomy of a long bone?
It consists of a proximal portion.
A distal portion.
And a large section in between.
Will the distal portion of a long bone attach to the joint that is closest or furthest from the body?
Furthest.
Will the proxiamal portion of a long bone attach to the joint that is closest or furthest from the body?
Closest.
What is the proximal end of a long bone called?
The proximal epiphyses.
What is the distal end of a long bone called?
The distal epiphyses.
Describe the central region of the long bone?
It lies in between the distal and proximal ends and is known as the diaphyses or shaft.
What is the metaphysis area of a long bone?
A small segment of bone that has a conical shape.
What is the metaphysis area of a long bone responsible for?
Linking the diaphyses to the epiphyses at both the proximal and distal ends.
What is the epiphyseal plate?
It is a plate of cartilage lying between the epiphyses and the metaphysis at both ends.
What animals will tend to have an epiphyseal plate?
Younger animals.
What is the job of the epiphyseal plate?
To help bone lengthen in the growth phase.
Which area of a long bone that will have the strongest and hardest area?
The diaphyses.
It is made from solid bone.
What is the periosteum?
A soft tissue that carries blood and nerves that surrounds the diaphyses.
What happens if the periosteum is stripped away from the bone?
The bone will die.
What is the small cavity that can be found in the diaphyses?
The medullary cavity.
What is the endosteum?
The medullary cavity in long bones is lined with a soft tissue called endosteum.
What is the the medullary cavity of long bones filled with?
Bone marrow which will produce blood cells.
What is the colour of bone marrow?
It will change between red and yellow depending on the health of the individual.
What animals will red bone marrow be found in?
Animals where the bone marrow has been active and is making red blood cells.
What animals will yellow bone marrow be found in?
It is usually seen in an animal that has a chronic disease.
What are the epiphyses and metaphyses of long bones filled with?
A soft, spongy type of bone that is also known as cancellous bone.
What is the function of the epiphyses and metaphyses?
To give strength to the extremities of long bones and to resist compression.
Will spongy bone contain bone marrow?
Yes.
Where is bone marrow found in the soft spongy bone of the epiphyses and metaphyses?
In the interstitial spaces.
What are the 3 main arteries that deliver blood to the bone?
The nutrient artery.
The epiphyseal arteries.
The metaphyseal arteries.
Which is the largest artery that delivers blood to the long bones?
The nutrient artery.
What landmark will the nutrient artery run through as it delivers blood to a long bone?
The nutrient foramen which is found in the middle of the diaphyses.
Where is the blood that is delivered by the nutrient artery usually directed to within a long bone?
To one end or extremity of the bone.
Where in the bone will the epyphyseal artery deliver blood to in a long bone?
It will pass through a foramen into the the proximal or distal epiphyses.
Where in the bone will the metaphyseal artery deliver blood to in a long bone?
It will pass through a foramen into the the proximal or distal metaphyses.
How many blood vessels are there that enter a long bone?
5.
1 nutrient artery to the diaphyses.
2 ephyseal arteries to the proximal and distal epiphyses.
2 metaphyseal arteries to the proximal and distal metaphyses.
What happens to the arteries as the enter a long bone?
They will split up to form multiple blood vessels giving good circulation around the bone.
What is the good circulation around the bone known as?
Collateral circulation.
What will happen to the blood supply in long bones if the nutrient artery is damaged and can not work?
The proximal and distal arteries will take over delivery of blood to the bone, due to the good collateral circulation within the bone.
What is the good collateral circulation of the bone helped by?
By anastomoses which is the joining of the different arteries so they become continuous.
What pathway will veins that remove blood from the bone follow?
They follow the same pathway as the arteries.
What are the arteries and veins responsible for in the bone?
The arteries are responsible for delivering oxygenated blood to the bone.
The veins will take de-oxygenated blood back to the heart.
What is the structural difference between veins and arteries?
Veins have much thinner walls.
Are there any lymphatic vessels in the bone?
No.
What structures often accompanies blood vessels to the bone?
Nerves.
Where are most of the nerves found around long bones?
Around the endosteum and periosteum.
What is the structure of short bones?
Usually, the length and width of almost any short bone is very similar.
Are short bones solitary or found in groups?
Usually groups off short bones will be found together e.g. in the wrist or the ankle.
What kind of bone are short bones made up of?
They are made of very compact bone on their outside, with spongy/cancellous bone on their inside.
Do short bones have a medullary cavity?
No.
How many surfaces do flat bones contain?
One external and one internal.
Give an example of a flat bone?
The bones of the skull.
The scapula.
Give an example of 3 specialised bones that is found in the body?
The sesamoid bones.
Splanchnic bones.
Pneumatic bones.
In what tissues will the sesamoid bones develop?
In highly mobile soft tissue that often experiences sudden changes in direction.
What is the job of sesamoid bones?
To help protect that soft tissue from being damaged while it moves over a bone.
E.g. Some sesamoid bones develop close to tendons, to protect them.
At what locations in the body are sesamoid commonly found?
At synovial joints and against major bones.
E.g The patella has developed over the tendon that joins the femur and tibia together.
Sesamoid bones that have developed on tendons can be described as what?
As ossified parts of the tendon.
Where will splanchnic bones develop?
In soft tissue that is located away from the skeleton. E.g. In organs.
Give 2 examples of splanchnic bones in mammals?
The os penis in dogs and cats.
The ossa cordis in the hearts of ruminants.
Describe the makeup of pneumatic bones?
They are usually air filled and found in the skulls of birds and in the skull bones of other animals.
Give an example of pneumatic bones?
The paranasal sinuses which are air filled spaces in the skull and are linked to the nasal cavity.
What are the paranasal sinuses lined by?
The link to the nasal cavity allows the paranasal sinus to be invaded by nasal mucosa which will line the inside of the cavity.
What specialised movements can muscles perform and what 3 things do these movements allow us to do?
They perform specialised contractions allowing movement to take place.
This movement can be for;
Locomotion.
The pumping of blood.
Shivering in an effort to generate warmth.
What are the 3 main types of muscle?
Skeletal muscle/somatic muscle.
Cardiac muscle.
Smooth/visceral muscle.
What is skeletal muscle also known as and why?
As voluntary or somatic muscle.
As it is the only type of muscle that we can move voluntarily via stimulation from the nerves.
What kind of muscle fibres make up skeletal muscle?
Skeletal muscle is said to be striated, meaning that the muscle fibres are arranged in parallel bundles.
Cardiac muscle makes up what muscle?
Cardiac muscle makes up the heart and cannot be moved voluntarily.
Where is smooth muscle usually found?
Smooth muscle is usually elongated and found in the blood vessels and the organs.
This muscle cannot be moved voluntarily.
What are muscle cells known as?
As fibres.
How does the length of muscle fibres affect the contractile force of the muscle?
The longer the fibres in the muscle, the greater the contractile force of that muscle.
What is the main power of or force of the muscle dependent on?
The cross sectional area of the muscle, which is why weight lifters have very large muscles.
What is protoplasm referred to as in a muscle cell?
Sarcoplasm.
What is the cell membrane referred to as in a muscle cell?
Sarcolemma.
What is the smooth ER referred to as in a muscle cell?
The sarcoplasmic reticulum.
What is the functional unit referred to as in a muscle cell?
Sarcomere.
What is the mitochondria referred to as in a muscle cell?
Sarcosomes.
What are the individual cells that make up a muscle?
Muscle fibres.
What are muscle fibres surrounded by?
A connective tissue called endomysium.
What is the function of the endomysium?
It connects a number muscle fibres together to make up a bundle.
What are bundles of muscle fibres surrounded by?
Then perimysium.
What is an entire muscle made up of?
Different bundles of muscle fibres.
What is an entire muscle surrounded by?
A whole muscle which will be surrounded by the epimysium.
What is the function of the 3 connective tissues in the muscle?
To help to connect the muscle to the tendon.
What are the long tendons that enter the muscle called?
The tendons of insertion.
In general, muscles are usually what shaped?
Spindle shaped.
What are the 3 parts that make up a muscle?
A head, belly and tail.
What is the muscle head?
The head is the part of the muscle that is in close proximity to the trunk or body.
What is the muscle belly?
The belly or venter is the middle of the muscle and is generally the largest area.
What is the muscle tail?
The tail is the end of the muscle that is furthest away from the trunk.
What are the head and tail of the muscles used for?
To attach the muscle to tendons.
Where are strap muscles often found?
In the muscles of the neck.
What are strap muscles also known as?
Parallel muscles as the fibres run parallel to each other.
What is the distinguishing feature of pennate muscles?
The muscle fibres in these muscles attach to the tendons at an angle.
What are the 3 different types of pennate muscle?
Unipennate.
Bipennate.
Multipennate.
Describe the muscle fibres in unipennate muscles?
The muscle fibres will attach to the tendons at 1 angle.
Describe the muscle fibres in bipennate muscles?
The muscle fibres will attach to the tendons at 2 angles.
Describe the muscle fibres in multipennate muscles?
The muscle fibres will attach to the tendons at multiple angles.
Can 2 different muscles share a common tendon?
Yes.
Will muscles that share a common tendon share the same nerves?
No.
What is a good example of 2 muscles that share a common tendon?
The digastric muscle which is located under the jaw.
It consists of 2 muscles, each supplied by a separate nerve, but linked together by a common tendon known as an intermediate tendon.
Can some muscles have more than 1 head?
Yes. e.g. the biceps (2), triceps (3) and quadriceps (4).
Do the muscles that have multiple heads attach to the same tendon?
Yes.
How do synergistic muscles work?
They work together to assist each other.
How do antagonistic muscles work?
They will oppose one another. E.g. The biceps and the triceps.
What is muscle flexion?
E.g. Lifting a weight in a bicep curl.
As you lift the weight, the angle between the forearm and humerus decreases. This is known as flexion.
What is muscle extension?
It is the opposite of flexion and can be described as the part of a bicep curl when you lower the weight and the angle of articulation between forearm and humerus increases.
Can limbs be flexed?
Only joints can be flexed or extended, limbs cannot. You can flex the knee, not the leg.
What is muscle abduction?
When a body part such as a limb is moved away from the medial plane. (Ab means away from in latin).
What is muscle adduction?
It is the opposite of abduction and is the movement of a limb or body part towards the medial plane. (Ad means towards in latin).
What is muscle elevation?
It involves the lifting of part of the body relative to other parts.
E.g. When the eyelid is allowed to open.
What is muscular circumduction?
The ability to move the limb or body part around.
E.g. Rotating the foot.
Many of the names of the muscles also include what?
Their range of movement.
What is muscle protraction?
When a muscle is advanced cranially.
E.g. When a horse is galloping, the outward movement of the leg is an example of protraction. Therefore, protraction is a forward movement.
What is muscle retraction?
It is the opposite of protraction, when the muscle is pulled caudally.
E.g. When a horse is galloping, the inward movement of the leg is an example of retraction. Therefore, retraction is a backwards movement.
What is muscular pronation?
The movement of the dorsal surface of a limb to a palmar position.
E.g. Rotating the hand from palm down to palm up.
What is muscular supination?
The movement of a palmar or plantar surface of a limb to a dorsal position.
E.g. Rotating the hand from palm up to palm down.
How is blood delivered to the muscles?
By at least one artery and the veins are satellites of the arteries.
Muscles also have fairly good collateral circulation.
The nerves usually follow the blood vessels.
What points of a muscle are tendons connected to?
The head and tail of the muscle.
What tissue makes up tendons?
A dense fibrous connective tissue called collagen.
What is a fleshy attachment of a muscle?
When some muscles appear to be directly attached to the bone.
Will tendons stretch?
No.
What is a flat tendon called?
An aponeuroses which helps to support the digestive organs and abdominal muscles.
Do tendons usually have good blood supply?
No.
What kind of bone might be found in some tendons?
A sesamoid bone.
What structure wraps around the tendon?
The tendon sheaf.
What is a fluid filled cushion that is found on some tendons?
A bursa.
What can develop on tendons where excessive friction occurs?
Fibrocartilage.
