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Intro to Anatomy. > Introductory Notes. > Flashcards

Introductory Notes. Flashcards

1
Q

Define aponeurosis?

A

A sheet of white fibrous tissue that takes the place of a tendon in sheetlike muscles.

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2
Q

Define avascular?

A

Does not have good blood supply.

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3
Q

What does the prefix chondro usually refer to?

A

Cartilage.

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4
Q

What are chondrocytes?

A

The only cells that are found in healthy cartilage.

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5
Q

What is the job of chondrocytes?

A

They maintain the cartilaginous matrix.

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6
Q

What does the word distal refer to?

A

A location that is further away from the body.

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7
Q

Define fascia?

A

A type of connective tissue that wraps around organs, providing support and holding parts together.

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8
Q

Define impermeable?

A

When a tissue will not allow fluid to pass through it.

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9
Q

Define perichondrium?

A

Dense connective tissue that surrounds cartilage where it is not at a joint.

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10
Q

What does the word proximaal refer to?

A

A location that closer to the body.

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11
Q

Define retinacula?

A

Thickened areas of deep fascia that are used for holding tendons in place.

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12
Q

Define subcuatneous?

A

Under the skin.

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13
Q

Define a tendon?

A

Tough connective tissue that attaches muscles to bones.

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14
Q

Anatomy is the study of what?

A

The form and structure of the body.

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15
Q

Are there many similarities in the anatomy of animals of different species?

A

Yes.

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16
Q

What are the 2 sub-categories of anatomy?

A

Gross anatomy.

Micro-anatomy.

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17
Q

What part of anatomy does gross anatomy deal with?

A

The organs and tissues that are visible to the naked eye.

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18
Q

What is gross anatomy also known as?

A

Macroscopic anatomy.

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19
Q

Usually, gross anatomy is based upon making observation using what?

A

A dead body.

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20
Q

Why is gross anatomy often described as systematic anatomy?

A

Because, it is descriptive and takes into account the relationships between various tissues and organs.

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21
Q

How can gross anatomy be applied clinically?

A

When diagnosing an issue or illness.

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22
Q

What is the practice of comparing anatomical features of different species known as?

A

Taxonomy.

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23
Q

What anatomy does micro anatomy deal with?

A

It deals with organs and tissues that are microscopic

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24
Q

What are the 2 sub categories of micro anatomy?

A

Embryology.

Histology.

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25
Q

What kind of anatomy does embryology deal with?

A

It deals with the study of the developing embryo.

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26
Q

What kind of anatomy does histology deal with?

A

It deals with the microscopic structure of the tissues.

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27
Q

What are cells made out of?

A

Protoplasm and various other substances.

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28
Q

What is formed when a number of cells of the same kind combine together?

A

A tissue.

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29
Q

What is formed when a number of tissues come together?

A

They combine to form an organ.

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30
Q

Is it possible for an organ to have a smaller organ within it?

A

Yes.

The finger is a defined organ within the hand.

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31
Q

What is formed when different organs work together?

A

A system.

E.g. The skeletal system or the respiratory system.

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32
Q

What can a surgical plane be described as?

A

The ability of a cutting edge to create straight lines.

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33
Q

Can planes ever be curved?

A

No.

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34
Q

What is the medial plane?

A

A surgical plane that divides an animal into 2 halves.

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35
Q

If the animal is divided into 2 unequal halves, has the knife passed through the medial plane?

A

No.

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36
Q

If a surgeon makes 2 cuts to the left of the medial plane, are the lateral or medial to the medial plane?

A

They are lateral to the medial plane.

However, the cut that is closest to the medial plane is medial to the cut that is furthest away.

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37
Q

Can there be more than 1 surgical plane?

A

Yes, but there can only be 1 medial plane.

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38
Q

How would a surgeon transect the limb?

A

They would make a right angled cut through the limb of an animal.

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39
Q

What would be the transverse plane of an animal?

A

Through the limb.

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40
Q

Which organs of the body contain connective tissue?

A

Almost all of them.

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41
Q

What is the job of connective tissue?

A

To help bind different organs together e.g. tendons.

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42
Q

Can blood be described as a connective tissue?

A

Yes.

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43
Q

What kind of density does connective tissue have?

A

Different densities. From very dense bone, to a few loose fibres or even liquids such as blood.

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44
Q

What connective tissues are vets mainly concerned with?

A

Solid connective tissues that have a high fibre content.

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45
Q

What is loose connective tissue formed from?

A

A jelly like matrix that has no defined shape and a few cells thrown in.

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46
Q

What kind of tissue holds cells together to form a tissue?

A

Loose connective tissue.

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47
Q

How is dense connective tissue is similar to loose connective tissue?

A

There are more fibres involved.

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48
Q

What is dense connective tissue made up of?

A

Tightly packed tough, white fibrous tissue that has a regular arrangement and is non-elastic.

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49
Q

What are the 3 fibre types that most dense connective tissue will contain at least one of?

A

Collagen.

Elastic fibres.

Reticular fibres.

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50
Q

Describe the 3 main characteristics of collagen?

A

White in colour.

Very strong.

Non elastic.

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51
Q

What is the main job of collagen?

A

To provide strength to connective tissue.

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52
Q

What main connective tissues are mainly made of collagen?

A

Tendons.

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53
Q

What are the 4 main characteristics of elastic fibres?

A

Yellow in colour.

Thinner fibres than collagen.

Stretchy.

The fibres often branch and unite.

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54
Q

What kind of connective tissues are made of elastic fibres?

A

Vocal cords.

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55
Q

Describe reticular fibres?

A

They are very thin fibres that form networks between cells so that tissues and organs can be formed.

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56
Q

What are 2 common types of connective tissue that found in mammals?

A

Aponeurosis.

Regular tendons.

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57
Q

Describe the structure of aponeurosis?

A

They are large flat tendons that have fibres running in 2 different planes.

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58
Q

What 2 directions do the fibres run in aponeurosis?

A

Cranio to caudal (head to tail) and dorsal to ventral (top to bottom).

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59
Q

Describe the fibres found in regular tendons and ligaments?

A

They are unidirectional or run parallel to each other.

These fibres accumulate to form a dense structure that is very strong.

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60
Q

Is areolar connective tissue loose or dense connective tissue?

A

Loose.

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61
Q

What is areolar connective tissue composed of?

A

Collagen and a few elastic fibres.

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62
Q

The word areolar describes what about areolar connective tissue?

A

The word areolar means small spaces and the spaces found in areolar CT are filled with air.

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63
Q

Why is areolar connective tissue found in high mobility areas?

A

It is very loose meaning that it is in areas that require mobility e.g. the skin.

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64
Q

What is the function of areolar connective tissue and where is it found?

A

It has a supportive function and is found around body structures such as blood vessels and abdominal organs.

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65
Q

What is fascia?

A

A type of connective tissue that wraps around organs to provide support and hold them together.

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66
Q

What are the 2 types of fascia?

A

Superficial fascia.

Deep fascia.

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67
Q

What is the superficial fascia also known as?

A

Subcutis.

Hypodermis.

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68
Q

Where is the superficial fascia found?

A

Just below the skin (subcutaneous) in locations where there is space,

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69
Q

Why can superficial fascia be thought of as a filler tissue?

A

Because it can be found between the skin and the underlying structures.

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70
Q

Superficial fascia is made of what kind of connective tissue?

A

Areolar connective tissue and is therefore quite loose.

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71
Q

Why is the superficial fascia a good injection site?

A

Because its loose nature can take in large volumes of fluid.

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72
Q

What type of fascia will fat cells accumulate in?

A

In the superficial fascia.

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73
Q

What is subcutaneous fascia that has accumulated a lot of fat cells known as?

A

Panniculus adiposus.

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74
Q

Where is deep fascia found?

A

Below the superficial fascia.

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75
Q

What tissues will deep fascia surround?

A

The different muscles and it will break them into groups giving them shape.

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76
Q

Is deep fascia permeable or impermeable?

A

Deep fascia is fairly impermeable and it will stop any material from entering the muscle.

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77
Q

Which fluids can spread amongst the deep fascia?

A

Fluids such as puss.

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78
Q

Can some muscles may use the deep fascia as a point of attachment?

A

Yes.

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79
Q

What kind of connective tissue is used to make up deep fascia and how is it arranged?

A

Deep fascia tends to be made of tough tissue and is arranged into fibrous sheets.

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80
Q

What kind of connective tissue is cartilage?

A

A solid or specialised connective tissue.

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81
Q

What is cartilage made up of?

A

A gel like matrix formed of hyaluronic acid and proteoglycans.

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82
Q

What spaces are found in cartilage and what is often found in these spaces?

A

Spaces called lacunae.

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83
Q

What is often found in the lacunae spaces within cartilage?

A

Chondrocytes.

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84
Q

What is perichondrium?

A

A type of dense connective tissue that surrounds some areas of cartilage.

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85
Q

What are the 3 types of cartilage?

A

Hyaline cartilage.

Elastic cartilage.

Fibrocartilage.

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86
Q

What colour is hyaline cartilage?

A

Bluish white in colour and it is translucent.

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87
Q

What is hyaline cartilage formed of?

A

A matrix mixed that contains a ground substance. Examples of hyaline cartilage would be nose cartilage or the cartilage found in the larynx.

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88
Q

Is hyaline cartilage surrounded by perichondrium?

A

No.

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89
Q

Can elastic cartilage stretch?

A

Yes.

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90
Q

What fibres make up elastic cartilage?

A

Yellow elastic fibres that are arranged into a matrix.

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91
Q

Where is elastic cartilage often found?

A

In the epiglottis or the auricle.

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92
Q

What kind of fibres is fibrocartilage made up of?

A

Many collagen fibres.

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93
Q

Which type of cartilage contains the most fibres?

A

Fibrocartilage..

94
Q

What is fibrocartilage designed to withstand?

A

Strong forces.

95
Q

Fibrocartilage is always associated with what kind of connective tissue?

A

Dense connective tissue.

96
Q

Where is fibrocartilage often found?

A

In the intervertebral discs.

97
Q

What is the most dense form of connective tissue?

A

Bone.

98
Q

Does bone have any elasticity?

A

No.

It is completely non-elastic.

99
Q

What is bine composed of?

A

A mixture of matrix and cells.

100
Q

What is the matrix that makes up bone composed of?

A

Around 35% fibres.

65% inorganic salts. of which around 58% are calcium and phosphorous and 7% is carbon.

101
Q

All the bones in the body form which system?

A

The skeletal system whose function is to give support and form to the body.

102
Q

What kind of movement do the bones allow the body to perform?

A

Locomotion or different bones can act as a lever for movement of one part of the body relative to another.

103
Q

Can bones protect organs?

A

Yes e.g. the skull protects the brain from shocks.

104
Q

Bones are an important reserve for what minerals?

A

Calcium and phosphate.

105
Q

How much blood is delivered to the bones?

A

Around 5-10%.

106
Q

What are the 3 main types of bone?

A

Long bones. E.g. Limb bones.

Short bones. E.g. Carpal and vertebral bones.

Flat bones. E.g. Cranial bones.

107
Q

What type of bones tend to fracture most easily?

A

Long bones.

108
Q

Where are long bones mainly found?

A

In the limbs e.g. the tibia, humerus and femur.

109
Q

Describe the anatomy of a long bone?

A

It consists of a proximal portion.

A distal portion.

And a large section in between.

110
Q

Will the distal portion of a long bone attach to the joint that is closest or furthest from the body?

A

Furthest.

111
Q

Will the proxiamal portion of a long bone attach to the joint that is closest or furthest from the body?

A

Closest.

112
Q

What is the proximal end of a long bone called?

A

The proximal epiphyses.

113
Q

What is the distal end of a long bone called?

A

The distal epiphyses.

114
Q

Describe the central region of the long bone?

A

It lies in between the distal and proximal ends and is known as the diaphyses or shaft.

115
Q

What is the metaphysis area of a long bone?

A

A small segment of bone that has a conical shape.

116
Q

What is the metaphysis area of a long bone responsible for?

A

Linking the diaphyses to the epiphyses at both the proximal and distal ends.

117
Q

What is the epiphyseal plate?

A

It is a plate of cartilage lying between the epiphyses and the metaphysis at both ends.

118
Q

What animals will tend to have an epiphyseal plate?

A

Younger animals.

119
Q

What is the job of the epiphyseal plate?

A

To help bone lengthen in the growth phase.

120
Q

Which area of a long bone that will have the strongest and hardest area?

A

The diaphyses.

It is made from solid bone.

121
Q

What is the periosteum?

A

A soft tissue that carries blood and nerves that surrounds the diaphyses.

122
Q

What happens if the periosteum is stripped away from the bone?

A

The bone will die.

123
Q

What is the small cavity that can be found in the diaphyses?

A

The medullary cavity.

124
Q

What is the endosteum?

A

The medullary cavity in long bones is lined with a soft tissue called endosteum.

125
Q

What is the the medullary cavity of long bones filled with?

A

Bone marrow which will produce blood cells.

126
Q

What is the colour of bone marrow?

A

It will change between red and yellow depending on the health of the individual.

127
Q

What animals will red bone marrow be found in?

A

Animals where the bone marrow has been active and is making red blood cells.

128
Q

What animals will yellow bone marrow be found in?

A

It is usually seen in an animal that has a chronic disease.

129
Q

What are the epiphyses and metaphyses of long bones filled with?

A

A soft, spongy type of bone that is also known as cancellous bone.

130
Q

What is the function of the epiphyses and metaphyses?

A

To give strength to the extremities of long bones and to resist compression.

131
Q

Will spongy bone contain bone marrow?

A

Yes.

132
Q

Where is bone marrow found in the soft spongy bone of the epiphyses and metaphyses?

A

In the interstitial spaces.

133
Q

What are the 3 main arteries that deliver blood to the bone?

A

The nutrient artery.

The epiphyseal arteries.

The metaphyseal arteries.

134
Q

Which is the largest artery that delivers blood to the long bones?

A

The nutrient artery.

135
Q

What landmark will the nutrient artery run through as it delivers blood to a long bone?

A

The nutrient foramen which is found in the middle of the diaphyses.

136
Q

Where is the blood that is delivered by the nutrient artery usually directed to within a long bone?

A

To one end or extremity of the bone.

137
Q

Where in the bone will the epyphyseal artery deliver blood to in a long bone?

A

It will pass through a foramen into the the proximal or distal epiphyses.

138
Q

Where in the bone will the metaphyseal artery deliver blood to in a long bone?

A

It will pass through a foramen into the the proximal or distal metaphyses.

139
Q

How many blood vessels are there that enter a long bone?

A

5.

1 nutrient artery to the diaphyses.

2 ephyseal arteries to the proximal and distal epiphyses.

2 metaphyseal arteries to the proximal and distal metaphyses.

140
Q

What happens to the arteries as the enter a long bone?

A

They will split up to form multiple blood vessels giving good circulation around the bone.

141
Q

What is the good circulation around the bone known as?

A

Collateral circulation.

142
Q

What will happen to the blood supply in long bones if the nutrient artery is damaged and can not work?

A

The proximal and distal arteries will take over delivery of blood to the bone, due to the good collateral circulation within the bone.

143
Q

What is the good collateral circulation of the bone helped by?

A

By anastomoses which is the joining of the different arteries so they become continuous.

144
Q

What pathway will veins that remove blood from the bone follow?

A

They follow the same pathway as the arteries.

145
Q

What are the arteries and veins responsible for in the bone?

A

The arteries are responsible for delivering oxygenated blood to the bone.

The veins will take de-oxygenated blood back to the heart.

146
Q

What is the structural difference between veins and arteries?

A

Veins have much thinner walls.

147
Q

Are there any lymphatic vessels in the bone?

A

No.

148
Q

What structures often accompanies blood vessels to the bone?

A

Nerves.

149
Q

Where are most of the nerves found around long bones?

A

Around the endosteum and periosteum.

150
Q

What is the structure of short bones?

A

Usually, the length and width of almost any short bone is very similar.

151
Q

Are short bones solitary or found in groups?

A

Usually groups off short bones will be found together e.g. in the wrist or the ankle.

152
Q

What kind of bone are short bones made up of?

A

They are made of very compact bone on their outside, with spongy/cancellous bone on their inside.

153
Q

Do short bones have a medullary cavity?

A

No.

154
Q

How many surfaces do flat bones contain?

A

One external and one internal.

155
Q

Give an example of a flat bone?

A

The bones of the skull.

The scapula.

156
Q

Give an example of 3 specialised bones that is found in the body?

A

The sesamoid bones.

Splanchnic bones.

Pneumatic bones.

157
Q

In what tissues will the sesamoid bones develop?

A

In highly mobile soft tissue that often experiences sudden changes in direction.

158
Q

What is the job of sesamoid bones?

A

To help protect that soft tissue from being damaged while it moves over a bone.

E.g. Some sesamoid bones develop close to tendons, to protect them.

159
Q

At what locations in the body are sesamoid commonly found?

A

At synovial joints and against major bones.

E.g The patella has developed over the tendon that joins the femur and tibia together.

160
Q

Sesamoid bones that have developed on tendons can be described as what?

A

As ossified parts of the tendon.

161
Q

Where will splanchnic bones develop?

A

In soft tissue that is located away from the skeleton. E.g. In organs.

162
Q

Give 2 examples of splanchnic bones in mammals?

A

The os penis in dogs and cats.

The ossa cordis in the hearts of ruminants.

163
Q

Describe the makeup of pneumatic bones?

A

They are usually air filled and found in the skulls of birds and in the skull bones of other animals.

164
Q

Give an example of pneumatic bones?

A

The paranasal sinuses which are air filled spaces in the skull and are linked to the nasal cavity.

165
Q

What are the paranasal sinuses lined by?

A

The link to the nasal cavity allows the paranasal sinus to be invaded by nasal mucosa which will line the inside of the cavity.

166
Q

What specialised movements can muscles perform and what 3 things do these movements allow us to do?

A

They perform specialised contractions allowing movement to take place.

This movement can be for;

Locomotion.

The pumping of blood.

Shivering in an effort to generate warmth.

167
Q

What are the 3 main types of muscle?

A

Skeletal muscle/somatic muscle.

Cardiac muscle.

Smooth/visceral muscle.

168
Q

What is skeletal muscle also known as and why?

A

As voluntary or somatic muscle.

As it is the only type of muscle that we can move voluntarily via stimulation from the nerves.

169
Q

What kind of muscle fibres make up skeletal muscle?

A

Skeletal muscle is said to be striated, meaning that the muscle fibres are arranged in parallel bundles.

170
Q

Cardiac muscle makes up what muscle?

A

Cardiac muscle makes up the heart and cannot be moved voluntarily.

171
Q

Where is smooth muscle usually found?

A

Smooth muscle is usually elongated and found in the blood vessels and the organs.

This muscle cannot be moved voluntarily.

172
Q

What are muscle cells known as?

A

As fibres.

173
Q

How does the length of muscle fibres affect the contractile force of the muscle?

A

The longer the fibres in the muscle, the greater the contractile force of that muscle.

174
Q

What is the main power of or force of the muscle dependent on?

A

The cross sectional area of the muscle, which is why weight lifters have very large muscles.

175
Q

What is protoplasm referred to as in a muscle cell?

A

Sarcoplasm.

176
Q

What is the cell membrane referred to as in a muscle cell?

A

Sarcolemma.

177
Q

What is the smooth ER referred to as in a muscle cell?

A

The sarcoplasmic reticulum.

178
Q

What is the functional unit referred to as in a muscle cell?

A

Sarcomere.

179
Q

What is the mitochondria referred to as in a muscle cell?

A

Sarcosomes.

180
Q

What are the individual cells that make up a muscle?

A

Muscle fibres.

181
Q

What are muscle fibres surrounded by?

A

A connective tissue called endomysium.

182
Q

What is the function of the endomysium?

A

It connects a number muscle fibres together to make up a bundle.

183
Q

What are bundles of muscle fibres surrounded by?

A

Then perimysium.

184
Q

What is an entire muscle made up of?

A

Different bundles of muscle fibres.

185
Q

What is an entire muscle surrounded by?

A

A whole muscle which will be surrounded by the epimysium.

186
Q

What is the function of the 3 connective tissues in the muscle?

A

To help to connect the muscle to the tendon.

187
Q

What are the long tendons that enter the muscle called?

A

The tendons of insertion.

188
Q

In general, muscles are usually what shaped?

A

Spindle shaped.

189
Q

What are the 3 parts that make up a muscle?

A

A head, belly and tail.

190
Q

What is the muscle head?

A

The head is the part of the muscle that is in close proximity to the trunk or body.

191
Q

What is the muscle belly?

A

The belly or venter is the middle of the muscle and is generally the largest area.

192
Q

What is the muscle tail?

A

The tail is the end of the muscle that is furthest away from the trunk.

193
Q

What are the head and tail of the muscles used for?

A

To attach the muscle to tendons.

194
Q

Where are strap muscles often found?

A

In the muscles of the neck.

195
Q

What are strap muscles also known as?

A

Parallel muscles as the fibres run parallel to each other.

196
Q

What is the distinguishing feature of pennate muscles?

A

The muscle fibres in these muscles attach to the tendons at an angle.

197
Q

What are the 3 different types of pennate muscle?

A

Unipennate.

Bipennate.

Multipennate.

198
Q

Describe the muscle fibres in unipennate muscles?

A

The muscle fibres will attach to the tendons at 1 angle.

199
Q

Describe the muscle fibres in bipennate muscles?

A

The muscle fibres will attach to the tendons at 2 angles.

200
Q

Describe the muscle fibres in multipennate muscles?

A

The muscle fibres will attach to the tendons at multiple angles.

201
Q

Can 2 different muscles share a common tendon?

A

Yes.

202
Q

Will muscles that share a common tendon share the same nerves?

A

No.

203
Q

What is a good example of 2 muscles that share a common tendon?

A

The digastric muscle which is located under the jaw.

It consists of 2 muscles, each supplied by a separate nerve, but linked together by a common tendon known as an intermediate tendon.

204
Q

Can some muscles have more than 1 head?

A

Yes. e.g. the biceps (2), triceps (3) and quadriceps (4).

205
Q

Do the muscles that have multiple heads attach to the same tendon?

A

Yes.

206
Q

How do synergistic muscles work?

A

They work together to assist each other.

207
Q

How do antagonistic muscles work?

A

They will oppose one another. E.g. The biceps and the triceps.

208
Q

What is muscle flexion?

A

E.g. Lifting a weight in a bicep curl.

As you lift the weight, the angle between the forearm and humerus decreases. This is known as flexion.

209
Q

What is muscle extension?

A

It is the opposite of flexion and can be described as the part of a bicep curl when you lower the weight and the angle of articulation between forearm and humerus increases.

210
Q

Can limbs be flexed?

A

Only joints can be flexed or extended, limbs cannot. You can flex the knee, not the leg.

211
Q

What is muscle abduction?

A

When a body part such as a limb is moved away from the medial plane. (Ab means away from in latin).

212
Q

What is muscle adduction?

A

It is the opposite of abduction and is the movement of a limb or body part towards the medial plane. (Ad means towards in latin).

213
Q

What is muscle elevation?

A

It involves the lifting of part of the body relative to other parts.

E.g. When the eyelid is allowed to open.

214
Q

What is muscular circumduction?

A

The ability to move the limb or body part around.

E.g. Rotating the foot.

215
Q

Many of the names of the muscles also include what?

A

Their range of movement.

216
Q

What is muscle protraction?

A

When a muscle is advanced cranially.

E.g. When a horse is galloping, the outward movement of the leg is an example of protraction. Therefore, protraction is a forward movement.

217
Q

What is muscle retraction?

A

It is the opposite of protraction, when the muscle is pulled caudally.

E.g. When a horse is galloping, the inward movement of the leg is an example of retraction. Therefore, retraction is a backwards movement.

218
Q

What is muscular pronation?

A

The movement of the dorsal surface of a limb to a palmar position.

E.g. Rotating the hand from palm down to palm up.

219
Q

What is muscular supination?

A

The movement of a palmar or plantar surface of a limb to a dorsal position.

E.g. Rotating the hand from palm up to palm down.

220
Q

How is blood delivered to the muscles?

A

By at least one artery and the veins are satellites of the arteries.

Muscles also have fairly good collateral circulation.

The nerves usually follow the blood vessels.

221
Q

What points of a muscle are tendons connected to?

A

The head and tail of the muscle.

222
Q

What tissue makes up tendons?

A

A dense fibrous connective tissue called collagen.

223
Q

What is a fleshy attachment of a muscle?

A

When some muscles appear to be directly attached to the bone.

224
Q

Will tendons stretch?

A

No.

225
Q

What is a flat tendon called?

A

An aponeuroses which helps to support the digestive organs and abdominal muscles.

226
Q

Do tendons usually have good blood supply?

A

No.

227
Q

What kind of bone might be found in some tendons?

A

A sesamoid bone.

228
Q

What structure wraps around the tendon?

A

The tendon sheaf.

229
Q

What is a fluid filled cushion that is found on some tendons?

A

A bursa.

230
Q

What can develop on tendons where excessive friction occurs?

A

Fibrocartilage.

Intro to Anatomy. (12 decks)

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