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PSY2042 > Introduction to Social Psychology > Flashcards

Introduction to Social Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

Define

Accessibility

A

The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds and are therefore likely to be used to be used when making judgments about the social world

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2
Q

Define

Analytic Thinking Style

A

A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context; this type of thinking is common in Western cultures

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3
Q

Define

Applied Research

A

Studies designed to solve a particular social problem

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4
Q

Define

Archival Analysis

A

A form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (e.g., diaries, novels, magazines and newspapers)

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5
Q

Define

Automatic Thinking

A

Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary and effortless

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6
Q

Define

Availability heuristic

A

a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision

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7
Q

Define

Base Rate Information

A

Information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population

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8
Q

Define

Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist

A

The trade-off between internal and external validity in conducting research; it is very difficult to do one experiment that is both high in internal validity and generalisable to other situations and people

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9
Q

Define

Basic Research

A

Studies that are designed to find the best answer to the question of why people behave as they do and that are conducted purely for reasons of intellectual curiosity

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10
Q

Define

Behaviourism

A

A school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behaviour, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment

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11
Q

Define

Central traits

A

an attribute in someone’s personality that is considered particularly meaningful, in that its presence or absence signals the presence or absence of other traits

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12
Q

Define

Conformity

A

A change in one’s behaviour due to the real or imagined influence of other people

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13
Q

Define

Construal

A

The way in which people perceive, comprehend and interpret the social world

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14
Q

Define

Contagion

A

The rapid spread of emotions or behaviours through a crowd

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15
Q

Define

Controlled Thinking

A

Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful

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16
Q

Define

Correlation Coefficient

A

The technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them (i.e., how much one can be predicted from the other) is assessed

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17
Q

Define

Cover Story

A

A secription of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpiose and is used to maintain psychological realism

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18
Q

Define

Cross-Cultural Research

A

Research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised

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19
Q

Define

Debriefing

A

Explaining to participants, at the end of an experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired

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20
Q

Define

Deception

A

Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the event that will actually transpire

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21
Q

Define

Dependent Variable

A

The variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent variable; the researcher hypothesises that this variable will depend on the level of the independent variable

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22
Q

Define

Descriptive Norms

A

People’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behaviour is approved or disapproved of by others

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23
Q

Define

Door-in-the-Face Technique

A

Social influence strategy in which first asking people for a large request that they will probably refuse makes them more likely to agree later to a second, smaller request

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24
Q

Define

Ethnography

A

The method by which researchers attemprs to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have

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25
Q

Define

Evolutionary Psychology

A

The attempt to explain social behaviour in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the priniciples of natural selection

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26
Q

Define

Evolutionary Theory

A

A concept developed by Charles Darwin to wxplain the ways in which animals adapt to their environments

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27
Q

Define

Experimental Method

A

The method in which the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people’s responses)

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28
Q

Define

External Validity

A

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalised to other situations and other people

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29
Q

Define

Field Experiments

A

Experiments conducted in natural settings rather than in the laboratory

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30
Q

Define

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

A

Social infleunce strategy in which getting people to agree first to a small request makes them more likely to agree later to a second, larger request

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31
Q

Define

Frontal lobe

A

each of the paired lobes of the brain lying immediately behind the forehead, including areas concerned with behaviour, learning, personality, and voluntary movement

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32
Q

Define

Fundamental Attibution Error

A

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people’s behaviour is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors

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33
Q

Define

Gestalt Psychology

A

A school of psychology stressing the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in people’s minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object

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34
Q

Define

Hindsight Bias

A

The tendency for people to exaggerate, after knowing something occurred, how much they could have predicted it before it occurred

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35
Q

Define

Holistic Thinking Style

A

A type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other; this type of thinking is common in East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan and Korea)

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36
Q

Define

Idiosyncrasy Credits

A

The tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, deviate from the group without retribution

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37
Q

Define

Independent Variable

A

The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable

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38
Q

Define

Informational Social Influence

A

Relying on other people as a source of information to guide our behaviour; we conform because we believe that others’ interpretation of an ambiguous situation is correct and can help us choose an appropriate course of action

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39
Q

Define

Informed Consent

A

Agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance

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40
Q

Define

Injunctive Norms

A

People’s perceptiosn of what behaviours are approved or disapproved of by others

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41
Q

Define

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A

A group made up of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one member not affiliated with the institution that review all psychological research at that institution and decides whether it meets ethical guidelines; all research must be approved by this body before it is conducted

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42
Q

Define

Interjudge Reliability

A

The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data; by showing that two or more judges independently come up with the same observations, researchers ensure that the observations are not the subjective, distorted impressions of one individual

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43
Q

Define

Internal Validity

A

Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions

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44
Q

Define

Judgmental Heuristics

A

Mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently

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45
Q

Define

Meta-Analysis

A

A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable

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46
Q

Define

Minority Influence

A

The case where a minority of a group members influences the behaviour or beliefs of the majority

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47
Q

Define

Natural Selection

A

The process by which heritable traits that promote survival in a particulat environment are passed along to future generations; organisms with those traits are more likely to produce offspring

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48
Q

Define

Neurotransmitters

A

a chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure

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49
Q

Define

Normative Social Infleunce

A

Going along with what other people do in order to be liked and accepted by them; we publicly conform with the group’s beliefs and behaviours but do not always privately accept them

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50
Q

Define

Observational Method

A

The technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behaviour

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51
Q

Define

Overconfidence Barrier

A

The fact that people usually have too much confidence in the accuract of their judgments

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52
Q

Define

Primacy effect

A

the tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence

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53
Q

Define

Priming

A

The process by which recent ecperiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait or concept

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54
Q

Define

Private Acceptance

A

Conforming to other people’s behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right

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55
Q

Define

Probability Level (p-value)

A

A number calculated with statistical techniques that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable or variables; the convention in science, including social psychology, is to consider results significant if the probability level is less than 5 in 100 that the results might be due to chance factors and noth the independent variables studied

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56
Q

Define

Propaganda

A

A deliberate, systematic attempt to advance a cause by manipulating mass attitudes and behaviours, often through misleading or emotionally charged information

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57
Q

Define

Psychological Realism

A

The extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life

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58
Q

Define

Public Compliance

A

Conforming to other people’s behaviour publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying

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59
Q

Define

Random Assignment to Condition

A

A process ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment; through random assignment, researchers can be relatively certain that differences in the participants’ personalities or backgrounds are distributed evenly across conditions

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60
Q

Define

Random sampling

A

a procedure in which every member of a population of interest has an equal probability of being selected and the selection of one member does not affect in any way the selection of another member

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61
Q

Define

Replications

A

Repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings

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62
Q

Define

Representativeness heuristic

A

A mental shortcut whereby people classify something accoridng to how similar it is to a typical case

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63
Q

Define

Schemas

A

Mental structures people use to organise their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember

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64
Q

Define

Script

A

a pre-existing knowledge structure involving event sequences

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65
Q

Define

Self-Esteem

A

People’s evauations of their own self-worth - that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent

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66
Q

Define

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A

An expectations of one’s own or another person’s behaviour that comes true because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways that bring it about

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67
Q

Define

Social Cognition

A

How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions

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68
Q

Define

Social Impact Theory

A

The idea that conforming to social influence depends on the group’s importance, immediacy, and the umber of people in the group

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69
Q

Define

Social Influence

A

The effect that the words, actions, or mere prescence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviour

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70
Q

Define

Social Norms

A

The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs or its members

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71
Q

Define

Social Psychology

A

The scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people

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72
Q

Define

Stereotype

A

A generalisation about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members

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73
Q

Define

Surveys

A

Research in which a representative sample of people are asked (often anonymously) questions about their attitudes or behaviours

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74
Q

Definition

The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds and are therefore likely to be used to be used when making judgments about the social world

A

Accessibility

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75
Q

Definition

A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context; this type of thinking is common in Western cultures

A

Analytic Thinking Style

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76
Q

Definition

Studies designed to solve a particular social problem

A

Applied Research

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77
Q

Definition

A form of the observational method in which the researcher examines the accumulated documents, or archives, of a culture (e.g., diaries, novels, magazines and newspapers)

A

Archival Analysis

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78
Q

Definition

Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary and effortless

A

Automatic Thinking

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79
Q

Definition

a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision

A

Availability heuristic

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80
Q

Definition

Information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population

A

Base Rate Information

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81
Q

Definition

The trade-off between internal and external validity in conducting research; it is very difficult to do one experiment that is both high in internal validity and generalisable to other situations and people

A

Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist

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82
Q

Definition

Studies that are designed to find the best answer to the question of why people behave as they do and that are conducted purely for reasons of intellectual curiosity

A

Basic Research

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83
Q

Definition

A school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behaviour, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment

A

Behaviourism

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84
Q

Definition

an attribute in someone’s personality that is considered particularly meaningful, in that its presence or absence signals the presence or absence of other traits

A

Central traits

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85
Q

Definition

A change in one’s behaviour due to the real or imagined influence of other people

A

Conformity

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86
Q

Definition

The way in which people perceive, comprehend and interpret the social world

A

Construal

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87
Q

Definition

The rapid spread of emotions or behaviours through a crowd

A

Contagion

88
Q

Definition

Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful

A

Controlled Thinking

89
Q

Definition

The technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them (i.e., how much one can be predicted from the other) is assessed

A

Correlation Coefficient

90
Q

Definition

A secription of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpiose and is used to maintain psychological realism

A

Cover Story

91
Q

Definition

Research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised

A

Cross-Cultural Research

92
Q

Definition

Explaining to participants, at the end of an experiment, the true purpose of the study and exactly what transpired

A

Debriefing

93
Q

Definition

Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the event that will actually transpire

A

Deception

94
Q

Definition

The variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the independent variable; the researcher hypothesises that this variable will depend on the level of the independent variable

A

Dependent Variable

95
Q

Definition

People’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behaviour is approved or disapproved of by others

A

Descriptive Norms

96
Q

Definition

Social influence strategy in which first asking people for a large request that they will probably refuse makes them more likely to agree later to a second, smaller request

A

Door-in-the-Face Technique

97
Q

Definition

The method by which researchers attemprs to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have

A

Ethnography

98
Q

Definition

The attempt to explain social behaviour in terms of genetic factors that have evolved over time according to the priniciples of natural selection

A

Evolutionary Psychology

99
Q

Definition

A concept developed by Charles Darwin to wxplain the ways in which animals adapt to their environments

A

Evolutionary Theory

100
Q

Definition

The method in which the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people’s responses)

A

Experimental Method

101
Q

Definition

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalised to other situations and other people

A

External Validity

102
Q

Definition

Experiments conducted in natural settings rather than in the laboratory

A

Field Experiments

103
Q

Definition

Social infleunce strategy in which getting people to agree first to a small request makes them more likely to agree later to a second, larger request

A

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

104
Q

Definition

each of the paired lobes of the brain lying immediately behind the forehead, including areas concerned with behaviour, learning, personality, and voluntary movement

A

Frontal lobe

105
Q

Definition

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people’s behaviour is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors

A

Fundamental Attibution Error

106
Q

Definition

A school of psychology stressing the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in people’s minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object

A

Gestalt Psychology

107
Q

Definition

The tendency for people to exaggerate, after knowing something occurred, how much they could have predicted it before it occurred

A

Hindsight Bias

108
Q

Definition

A type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other; this type of thinking is common in East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan and Korea)

A

Holistic Thinking Style

109
Q

Definition

The tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, deviate from the group without retribution

A

Idiosyncrasy Credits

110
Q

Definition

The variable a researcher changes or varies to see if it has an effect on some other variable

A

Independent Variable

111
Q

Definition

Relying on other people as a source of information to guide our behaviour; we conform because we believe that others’ interpretation of an ambiguous situation is correct and can help us choose an appropriate course of action

A

Informational Social Influence

112
Q

Definition

Agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance

A

Informed Consent

113
Q

Definition

People’s perceptiosn of what behaviours are approved or disapproved of by others

A

Injunctive Norms

114
Q

Definition

A group made up of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one member not affiliated with the institution that review all psychological research at that institution and decides whether it meets ethical guidelines; all research must be approved by this body before it is conducted

A

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

115
Q

Definition

The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data; by showing that two or more judges independently come up with the same observations, researchers ensure that the observations are not the subjective, distorted impressions of one individual

A

Interjudge Reliability

116
Q

Definition

Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions

A

Internal Validity

117
Q

Definition

Mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently

A

Judgmental Heuristics

118
Q

Definition

A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable

A

Meta-Analysis

119
Q

Definition

The case where a minority of a group members influences the behaviour or beliefs of the majority

A

Minority Influence

120
Q

Definition

The process by which heritable traits that promote survival in a particulat environment are passed along to future generations; organisms with those traits are more likely to produce offspring

A

Natural Selection

121
Q

Definition

a chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure

A

Neurotransmitters

122
Q

Definition

Going along with what other people do in order to be liked and accepted by them; we publicly conform with the group’s beliefs and behaviours but do not always privately accept them

A

Normative Social Infleunce

123
Q

Definition

The technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behaviour

A

Observational Method

124
Q

Definition

The fact that people usually have too much confidence in the accuract of their judgments

A

Overconfidence Barrier

125
Q

Definition

the tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence

A

Primacy effect

126
Q

Definition

The process by which recent ecperiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait or concept

A

Priming

127
Q

Definition

Conforming to other people’s behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right

A

Private Acceptance

128
Q

Definition

A number calculated with statistical techniques that tells researchers how likely it is that the results of their experiment occurred by chance and not because of the independent variable or variables; the convention in science, including social psychology, is to consider results significant if the probability level is less than 5 in 100 that the results might be due to chance factors and noth the independent variables studied

A

Probability Level (p-value)

129
Q

Definition

A deliberate, systematic attempt to advance a cause by manipulating mass attitudes and behaviours, often through misleading or emotionally charged information

A

Propaganda

130
Q

Definition

The extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life

A

Psychological Realism

131
Q

Definition

Conforming to other people’s behaviour publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying

A

Public Compliance

132
Q

Definition

A process ensuring that all participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment; through random assignment, researchers can be relatively certain that differences in the participants’ personalities or backgrounds are distributed evenly across conditions

A

Random Assignment to Condition

133
Q

Definition

a procedure in which every member of a population of interest has an equal probability of being selected and the selection of one member does not affect in any way the selection of another member

A

Random sampling

134
Q

Definition

Repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings

A

Replications

135
Q

Definition

A mental shortcut whereby people classify something accoridng to how similar it is to a typical case

A

Representativeness heuristic

136
Q

Definition

Mental structures people use to organise their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember

A

Schemas

137
Q

Definition

a pre-existing knowledge structure involving event sequences

A

Script

138
Q

Definition

People’s evauations of their own self-worth - that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent

A

Self-Esteem

139
Q

Definition

An expectations of one’s own or another person’s behaviour that comes true because of the tendency of the person holding it to act in ways that bring it about

A

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

140
Q

Definition

How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions

A

Social Cognition

141
Q

Definition

The idea that conforming to social influence depends on the group’s importance, immediacy, and the umber of people in the group

A

Social Impact Theory

142
Q

Definition

The effect that the words, actions, or mere prescence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviour

A

Social Influence

143
Q

Definition

The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviours, values, and beliefs or its members

A

Social Norms

144
Q

Definition

The scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts feelings, and behaviours are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people

A

Social Psychology

145
Q

Definition

A generalisation about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members

A

Stereotype

146
Q

Definition

Research in which a representative sample of people are asked (often anonymously) questions about their attitudes or behaviours

A

Surveys

147
Q

What three main areas are included in social psychology?

A

Social thinking

Social infleunce

Social relations

148
Q

What is the difference between sociology, social and personality psychology?

A

Sociology: the study of groups, organisations, and societies, rather than individuals

Social psychology: the study of the psychological processes people have in common that make them susceptible to social influence

Personality psychology: the study of the characteristics tat make inividuals unique and different from one another

149
Q

Which effect explains the following scenario?

When you hear of a person who failed a test and think that they must be stupid or didn’t study enough so it’s their fault but when you fail a test, the test must have been too hard so it’s not your fault

A

Fundamental attribution error

150
Q

What happens when we fail to fully appreciate the power of the situation?

A

Oversimplify complex situations

Decrease our understanding of the true causes

Blame the victim when people are overpowered by social forces

151
Q

What is social cogntion?

A

How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions

  • Takes into account how people think about the world
  • We try to gain accurate understandings so we can make effective judgments and decisions
  • But we typically act on the basis of incompletely and inaccurately interpreted information
152
Q
A
153
Q

What are the two types of social cognition?

A

Automatic thinking

Controlled thinking

154
Q

Which are central traits: warm/cold, polite/blunt ?

A

Warm/cold

155
Q

True or False:

Traits that appear first in a description have more impact in final impressions

A

True

156
Q

What are some different types of schemas?

A

Person schema

Content-free schema

Self-schema

Role schema

157
Q

What are the three reasons schemas become accessible?

A

Past experience

Goal

Recent experiences

158
Q

What type of social cognition is priming?

A

Automatic thinking

159
Q

What are the different types of automatic thinking?

A
  • Priming
  • Automatic goal pursuit
  • Automatic decision making
  • Automatic thinking and metaphors about the body and mind
  • Mental strategies and shortcuts
160
Q

What are the three main heuristics/cognitive shortcuts?

A

Representative heuristic

Availability heuristic

Anchoring

161
Q

What is the main different in social cogntion between Western and East Asian cultures?

A

Analytic thinking styles are typical of Western cultures whereas Holistic thinking styles are more typical of East Asian cultures

162
Q

How does someone belief in free-will influence their behaviour?

A

The more people believe in free will, the more they help and the less they cheat

163
Q

Why do people conform?

A
  • Can lead to positive or negative behavior
  • People conform because they don’t know how to act in a confusing or unusual situation.
  • People conform because behaviour of people around us serves as a cue to how to respond.
  • People conform because they don’t want to be ridiculed or punished.
  • People conform because they want to be accepted by the group.
164
Q

What is the difference between private acceptance and public compliance?

A

Private acceptance:

  • Conforming to other people’s behaviour out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right
  • Informational social influence often results in private acceptance!

Public compliance:

  • Conforming to other people’s behaviour publicly without necessarily believing in what we are doing or saying
165
Q

When will people conform to informational social influence?

A

When the situation is:

  • Ambiguous
  • A crisis
  • When other people are experts
166
Q

What are the two types of norms that operate in different situations?

A

Injunctive norms

Descriptive norms

167
Q

__________ = The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members.

__________________: Going along with what other people do in order to be liked and accepted by them; we publicly conform with the group’s beliefs and behaviors but do not always privately accept them.

A

Social Norms = The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members.

Normative Social Influence: Going along with what other people do in order to be liked and accepted by them; we publicly conform with the group’s beliefs and behaviors but do not always privately accept them.

168
Q

___________: People’s perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others

______________: People’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others

A

Injunctive norms: People’s perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others

Descriptive norms: People’s perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others

169
Q

What are the three compliance techniques?

A

Foot-in-the-door

Door-in-the-face

Propaganda

170
Q

What type of compliance technique was used in Milgram’s experiment?

A

Foot-in-the-door

171
Q

Why was Milgram’s experiment considered unethical?

A
  • Involved deception
  • Lacked fully informed consent
  • Role as teacher caused psychological distress
  • Not made clear that the participants could withdraw from study
  • Participants experienced inflicted insight
172
Q

Social psychology is social because it

A) incorporates evolutionary social psychology

B) deals with how people are affected by other people

C) is a branch of general psychology

D) is based on group dynamics

A

Social psychology is social because it

A) incorporates evolutionary social psychology

B) deals with how people are affected by other people

C) is a branch of general psychology

D) is based on group dynamics

173
Q

Cognitive psychology’s influence on social psychology is evident in the area of

A) cognitive ethology

B) sociolinguistics

C) social cognition

D) cognitive dissonance

A

Cognitive psychology’s influence on social psychology is evident in the area of

A) cognitive ethology

B) sociolinguistics

C) social cognition

D) cognitive dissonance

174
Q

One problem with defining social psychology solely in terms of the topics it studies is that

A) this does not properly differentiate it from other disciplines

B) it’s too closely related to sociology

C) it covers the study of too large a range of topics

D) there is no problem; social psychology is always defined solely in terms of the topics social psychologists study

A

One problem with defining social psychology solely in terms of the topics it studies is that

A) this does not properly differentiate it from other disciplines

B) it’s too closely related to sociology

C) it covers the study of too large a range of topics

D) there is no problem; social psychology is always defined solely in terms of the topics social psychologists study

175
Q

At a broad level, research in social psychology can be said to use two types of methods

A) correlational and multivariate

B) discursive and narrative

C) quantitative and statistical

D) experimental and non-experimental

A

At a broad level, research in social psychology can be said to use two types of methods

A) correlational and multivariate

B) discursive and narrative

C) quantitative and statistical

D) experimental and non-experimental

176
Q

One way to avoid confounding results in an experiment is to

A) ensure the hypotheses are phrased as testable predictions

B) test all participants in rooms with blue walls, regardless of their condition

C) ensure all conditions are identical except for the independent variable of interest

D) only ever test a maximum of six participants at a time, to allow ease of recording data

A

One way to avoid confounding results in an experiment is to

A) ensure the hypotheses are phrased as testable predictions

B) test all participants in rooms with blue walls, regardless of their condition

C) ensure all conditions are identical except for the independent variable of interest

D) only ever test a maximum of six participants at a time, to allow ease of recording data

177
Q

Social cognition is a field of social psychology dealing with how

A) attitudes need to be cognitively consistent

B) genes influence our thinking

C) we construct a self-image

D) thought processes are linked to social contexts and social behaviour

A

Social cognition is a field of social psychology dealing with how

A) attitudes need to be cognitively consistent

B) genes influence our thinking

C) we construct a self-image

D) thought processes are linked to social contexts and social behaviour

178
Q

Which concept has NOT played a role in the development of modern social cognition?

A) Group mind

B) Attribution

C) Cognitive miser

D) Motivated tactician

A

Which concept has NOT played a role in the development of modern social cognition?

A) Group mind

B) Attribution

C) Cognitive miser

D) Motivated tactician

179
Q

The model in which people are motivated to reduce perceived discrepancies between their various cognitions, because such discrepancies are aversive or unpleasant, is called

A) cognitive balance

B) cognitive harmony

C) cognitive similarity

D) cognitive consistency

A

The model in which people are motivated to reduce perceived discrepancies between their various cognitions, because such discrepancies are aversive or unpleasant, is called

A) cognitive balance

B) cognitive harmony

C) cognitive similarity

D) cognitive consistency

180
Q

What characterises ‘naïve scientists’ is that they

A) are generally of average rather than superior intelligence

B) fail to understand that their inventions can make money

C) are often isolated from the real world

D) use cause-effect interpretations of events around them

A

What characterises ‘naïve scientists’ is that they

A) are generally of average rather than superior intelligence

B) fail to understand that their inventions can make money

C) are often isolated from the real world

D) use cause-effect interpretations of events around them

181
Q

Following Asch (1946), which model do people use to form first impressions of others?

A) A cognitive model

B) A configural model

C) A behavioural model

D) A tangential model

A

Following Asch (1946), which model do people use to form first impressions of others?

A) A cognitive model

B) A configural model

C) A behavioural model

D) A tangential model

182
Q

Asch (1946) found that some traits (central traits) perceived in others strongly affect how we decide if other traits also apply. For example, we are more likely to judge Mary as ‘generous’ if we also believe that she is

A) ‘warm’

B) ‘cold’

C) ‘polite’

D) both A and B

A

Asch (1946) found that some traits (central traits) perceived in others strongly affect how we decide if other traits also apply. For example, we are more likely to judge Mary as ‘generous’ if we also believe that she is

A) ‘warm’

B) ‘cold’

C) ‘polite’

D) both A and B

183
Q

Stephanie is a firm believer in ‘not judging a book by its cover’. In her Introduction to Psychology class, Stephanie has been partnered up with Chris for a group assignment. When she looks across the room to see her new partner, Stephanie finds Chris very physically attractive. Based on her first impressions, Stephanie is likely to judge Chris as

A) dumb, incompetent, unreliable and boring

B) average, mediocre and middle of the range

C) nothing yet, she cannot make a judgement based solely on his looks

D) intelligent, interesting, capable and a good worker

A

Stephanie is a firm believer in ‘not judging a book by its cover’. In her Introduction to Psychology class, Stephanie has been partnered up with Chris for a group assignment. When she looks across the room to see her new partner, Stephanie finds Chris very physically attractive. Based on her first impressions, Stephanie is likely to judge Chris as

A) dumb, incompetent, unreliable and boring

B) average, mediocre and middle of the range

C) nothing yet, she cannot make a judgement based solely on his looks

D) intelligent, interesting, capable and a good worker

184
Q

When we perform mental calculations using summation, averaging and weighted averaging, we are actually using

A) coordinate geometry

B) cluster analysis

C) cognitive algebra

D) trigonometry

A

When we perform mental calculations using summation, averaging and weighted averaging, we are actually using

A) coordinate geometry

B) cluster analysis

C) cognitive algebra

D) trigonometry

185
Q

You met Sarah in your very first Introduction to Psychology lecture. Throughout the semester, you have discovered that Sarah is intelligent, humorous, generous, and really social. However, you have also noticed she is quite lazy and bossy. Using your knowledge of cognitive algebra, you have worked out that your final impression of Sarah as a potential friend is quite high at +3.60. However, your final impression of Sarah as a partner for an assignment is -1.70. This is an example of

A) averaging

B) stereotyping

C) summation

D) weighted averaging

A

You met Sarah in your very first Introduction to Psychology lecture. Throughout the semester, you have discovered that Sarah is intelligent, humorous, generous, and really social. However, you have also noticed she is quite lazy and bossy. Using your knowledge of cognitive algebra, you have worked out that your final impression of Sarah as a potential friend is quite high at +3.60. However, your final impression of Sarah as a partner for an assignment is -1.70. This is an example of

A) averaging

B) stereotyping

C) summation

D) weighted averaging

186
Q

The best definition of a schema is that it is

A) a cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus

B) a cognitive representation of the typical or ideal defining features of a category

C) a collection of instances that have a family resemblance

D) a cognitive structure specific to a social group and is widely shared

A

The best definition of a schema is that it is

A) a cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus

B) a cognitive representation of the typical or ideal defining features of a category

C) a collection of instances that have a family resemblance

D) a cognitive structure specific to a social group and is widely shared

187
Q

Your friend claims that guys in rock bands ‘snort drugs, stub out cigarettes on the carpet and steal people’s knickers’. Your studies suggest that these descriptions are

A) associative networks

B) stereotypes

C) content-free schemas

D) all of the above

A

Your friend claims that guys in rock bands ‘snort drugs, stub out cigarettes on the carpet and steal people’s knickers’. Your studies suggest that these descriptions are

A) associative networks

B) stereotypes

C) content-free schemas

D) all of the above

188
Q

When you started your degree perhaps you were confident of graduating because you are hardworking, at least as intelligent as the average student and otherwise a determined person. Such traits are aspects of your

A) self-schema

B) genes

C) ideal self

D) ego

A

When you started your degree perhaps you were confident of graduating because you are hardworking, at least as intelligent as the average student and otherwise a determined person. Such traits are aspects of your

A) self-schema

B) genes

C) ideal self

D) ego

189
Q

Alyson, Cara and Hilda agree that Prince Harry is the perfect male. They

A) are using a prototype

B) are creating a stereotype

C) have clarified a fuzzy set

D) need counselling

A

Alyson, Cara and Hilda agree that Prince Harry is the perfect male. They

A) are using a prototype

B) are creating a stereotype

C) have clarified a fuzzy set

D) need counselling

190
Q

People use schemas to process information. Schemas function to

A) interpret new information

B) encode old information

C) fill in gaps in what we know

D) all of the above

A

People use schemas to process information. Schemas function to

A) interpret new information

B) encode old information

C) fill in gaps in what we know

D) all of the above

191
Q

Who was the most influential person of the 20th century? Europeans may refer to Hitler, Indians to Gandhi and Americans to Kennedy. These are different responses, so that the category ‘influential person’ is a(n)

A) stereotype

B) fuzzy set

C) prototype

D) exemplar

A

Who was the most influential person of the 20th century? Europeans may refer to Hitler, Indians to Gandhi and Americans to Kennedy. These are different responses, so that the category ‘influential person’ is a(n)

A) stereotype

B) fuzzy set

C) prototype

D) exemplar

192
Q

Which of the following statements is INCORRECT?

A) Negative stereotypes become more hostile during times of intergroup conflict.

B) Once formed, stereotypes change very slowly.

C) Stereotypes are acquired through contact with members of outgroups.

D) Stereotypes make sense of intergroup relations.

A

Which of the following statements is INCORRECT?

A) Negative stereotypes become more hostile during times of intergroup conflict.

B) Once formed, stereotypes change very slowly.

C) Stereotypes are acquired through contact with members of outgroups.

D) Stereotypes make sense of intergroup relations.

193
Q

When categorising stimuli, the accentuation effect is enhanced when

A) the categorisation has importance, relevance or value to the person

B) it is easy to categorise the stimuli based on differing attributes

C) the categorisation is based on easily observable, physical characteristics

D) the categorisation is not important or relevant to the person

A

When categorising stimuli, the accentuation effect is enhanced when

A) the categorisation has importance, relevance or value to the person

B) it is easy to categorise the stimuli based on differing attributes

C) the categorisation is based on easily observable, physical characteristics

D) the categorisation is not important or relevant to the person

194
Q

Schemas become more complex as

A) more instances are encountered

B) we continue to study social psychology

C) information overload is reduced

D) fewer instances relate to it

A

Schemas become more complex as

A) more instances are encountered

B) we continue to study social psychology

C) information overload is reduced

D) fewer instances relate to it

195
Q

The property of a stimulus to make it stand out relative to other stimuli is called

A) vividness

B) salience

C) accessibility

D) attention-seeking

A

The property of a stimulus to make it stand out relative to other stimuli is called

A) vividness

B) salience

C) accessibility

D) attention-seeking

196
Q

You are having Sunday brunch with your friend at a quiet, family-friendly cafe when suddenly three cross-dressers enter and perform an aria usually sung by three famous tenors. Excited, you and your friend continue to discuss this event after the three artists have left because you

A) have discovered what a ‘prototype’ means

B) have just experienced an accentuation effect

C) have just perceived stimuli that are vivid

D) want to get similar outfits for the upcoming dress-up ball

A

You are having Sunday brunch with your friend at a quiet, family-friendly cafe when suddenly three cross-dressers enter and perform an aria usually sung by three famous tenors. Excited, you and your friend continue to discuss this event after the three artists have left because you

A) have discovered what a ‘prototype’ means

B) have just experienced an accentuation effect

C) have just perceived stimuli that are vivid

D) want to get similar outfits for the upcoming dress-up ball

197
Q

Categories of stimuli that are accessible are those that are

A) recently learned

B) used in everyday life

C) in line with what we want or need

D) all of the above

A

Categories of stimuli that are accessible are those that are

A) recently learned

B) used in everyday life

C) in line with what we want or need

D) all of the above

198
Q

In terms of our general impression of someone, we are more likely to recall information that is inconsistent, rather than consistent, with our impression. Why is this?

A) Because inconsistent information attracts attention and generates more cognition and thought, weakening memory retrieval routes

B) Because we don’t want to believe that our original impressions about someone are wrong

C) Because inconsistent information attracts attention and generates more cognition and thought, strengthening memory retrieval routes

D) Because cognitively it is easier to attend to information that is consistent with our original schema

A

In terms of our general impression of someone, we are more likely to recall information that is inconsistent, rather than consistent, with our impression. Why is this?

A) Because inconsistent information attracts attention and generates more cognition and thought, weakening memory retrieval routes

B) Because we don’t want to believe that our original impressions about someone are wrong

C) Because inconsistent information attracts attention and generates more cognition and thought, strengthening memory retrieval routes

D) Because cognitively it is easier to attend to information that is consistent with our original schema

199
Q

Softly-spoken Dorothy is doing something very uncharacteristic in a public car park—assertively she tells someone who has just unpacked a shopping trolley to return it to ‘its proper place’. You, as a close friend, are likely to

A) pay close attention to what is going on

B) attribute it to stress in Dorothy’s private life

C) remember that Dorothy can be as assertive as yourself

D) forget about it at present, but store it up to think about it later

A

Softly-spoken Dorothy is doing something very uncharacteristic in a public car park—assertively she tells someone who has just unpacked a shopping trolley to return it to ‘its proper place’. You, as a close friend, are likely to

A) pay close attention to what is going on

B) attribute it to stress in Dorothy’s private life

C) remember that Dorothy can be as assertive as yourself

D) forget about it at present, but store it up to think about it later

200
Q

According to Tracey, the living standard in Europe has improved since the establishment of the EU. She says she knows this because she has been reading about the EU in the local paper. Which heuristic bias is she likely to be using?

A) Regression

B) Representativeness

C) Anchoring

D) Availability

A

According to Tracey, the living standard in Europe has improved since the establishment of the EU. She says she knows this because she has been reading about the EU in the local paper. Which heuristic bias is she likely to be using?

A) Regression

B) Representativeness

C) Anchoring

D) Availability

201
Q

Lauren does not consider herself to be very artistic or creative. When she meets Ben in her Introduction to Psychology class, and finds out he plays guitar, she may infer that he is extremely artistic. What cognitive heuristic is Lauren most likely to be using?

A) Availability

B) Anchoring

C) Representativeness

D) Prejudice

A

Lauren does not consider herself to be very artistic or creative. When she meets Ben in her Introduction to Psychology class, and finds out he plays guitar, she may infer that he is extremely artistic. What cognitive heuristic is Lauren most likely to be using?

A) Availability

B) Anchoring

C) Representativeness

D) Prejudice

202
Q

According to Moscovici (1976), an important prerequisite for coercive compulsion and compliance is that the source of social influence is perceived by the target of social influence to have

A) power

B) positive emotion

C) an eloquent way of speaking

D) rewards for the target

A

According to Moscovici (1976), an important prerequisite for coercive compulsion and compliance is that the source of social influence is perceived by the target of social influence to have

A) power

B) positive emotion

C) an eloquent way of speaking

D) rewards for the target

203
Q

‘Compliance’ refers to

A) a private and enduring change of attitudes and behaviour

B) voluntary adherence to the norms of a reference group

C) people’s attempts to exhibit their group’s prototypical behaviour

D) an external change in behaviour and in expressed attitudes

A

‘Compliance’ refers to

A) a private and enduring change of attitudes and behaviour

B) voluntary adherence to the norms of a reference group

C) people’s attempts to exhibit their group’s prototypical behaviour

D) an external change in behaviour and in expressed attitudes

204
Q

A collection of individuals who are significant for a person’s attitude and behaviour both in a positive as well as a negative sense is termed

A) a control group

B) a membership group

C) a reference group

D) a significance level

A

A collection of individuals who are significant for a person’s attitude and behaviour both in a positive as well as a negative sense is termed

A) a control group

B) a membership group

C) a reference group

D) a significance level

205
Q

Mr Swine is the owner of a new shoe factory. He can threaten, or even punish, his predominantly immigrant and female factory workers if they make mistakes. Mr Swine’s power is

A) delegated

B) coercive

C) referent

D) illegitimate

A

Mr Swine is the owner of a new shoe factory. He can threaten, or even punish, his predominantly immigrant and female factory workers if they make mistakes. Mr Swine’s power is

A) delegated

B) coercive

C) referent

D) illegitimate

206
Q

While the process of controlling others through domination is referred to as power, the process of mobilising others to attain a common goal is referred to as

A) compliance

B) leadership

C) motivation

D) obedience

A

While the process of controlling others through domination is referred to as power, the process of mobilising others to attain a common goal is referred to as

A) compliance

B) leadership

C) motivation

D) obedience

207
Q

One reason that people continued to administer electric shocks in Milgram’s study may be that the experiment starts with quite trivial shocks and, once the participant has committed themselves to giving shocks, it can be difficult for them to change their mind and not continue their commitment. This process

A) reflects the psychology of ‘sunk costs’

B) is similar to the foot-in-the-door technique of persuasion

C) both A and B

D) neither A nor B

A

One reason that people continued to administer electric shocks in Milgram’s study may be that the experiment starts with quite trivial shocks and, once the participant has committed themselves to giving shocks, it can be difficult for them to change their mind and not continue their commitment. This process

A) reflects the psychology of ‘sunk costs’

B) is similar to the foot-in-the-door technique of persuasion

C) both A and B

D) neither A nor B

208
Q

When can obedience be beneficial?

A) In an emergency situation

B) When nurses blindly obey doctors’ orders

C) When conforming to peer pressure

D) Obedience can never be beneficial

A

When can obedience be beneficial?

A) In an emergency situation

B) When nurses blindly obey doctors’ orders

C) When conforming to peer pressure

D) Obedience can never be beneficial

209
Q

In an early study, Allport (1924) noted that, as compared to individuals, people in groups make decisions that are

A) based on a continuum

B) based on previous decisions

C) less extreme

D) less conservative

A

In an early study, Allport (1924) noted that, as compared to individuals, people in groups make decisions that are

A) based on a continuum

B) based on previous decisions

C) less extreme

D) less conservative

210
Q

A context that is relevant for making social comparisons is called a(n)

A) frame of reference

B) group task

C) prototype

D) experimental situation

A

A context that is relevant for making social comparisons is called a(n)

A) frame of reference

B) group task

C) prototype

D) experimental situation

211
Q

When it comes to matters of taste, and when you are concerned about ‘fitting in’ with the group, group size will have a ___________ effect on conformity.

A) non-linear

B) linear

C) weak

D) null

A

When it comes to matters of taste, and when you are concerned about ‘fitting in’ with the group, group size will have a ___________ effect on conformity.

A) non-linear

B) linear

C) weak

D) null

212
Q

The dual-process dependency model of social influence refers to both informational and normative influence. However, it has been challenged because

A) studies cannot be replicated

B) it overlooks the properties of the stimulus

C) personality differences are neglected

D) it disregards the role of group belongingness

A

The dual-process dependency model of social influence refers to both informational and normative influence. However, it has been challenged because

A) studies cannot be replicated

B) it overlooks the properties of the stimulus

C) personality differences are neglected

D) it disregards the role of group belongingness

213
Q

Wayne has taken up surfing. Now he spends every free minute at the beach. He wears long baggy shorts, wrap-around sunglasses and has dyed blonde curls. In joining a ‘world of surfies’ he is responding to

A) majority pressure

B) referent informational influence

C) his personal disposition to conform

D) the latest fashion trend

A

Wayne has taken up surfing. Now he spends every free minute at the beach. He wears long baggy shorts, wrap-around sunglasses and has dyed blonde curls. In joining a ‘world of surfies’ he is responding to

A) majority pressure

B) referent informational influence

C) his personal disposition to conform

D) the latest fashion trend

214
Q

The process of self-categorisation

A) leads to assimilation to the group norm

B) helps establish individuality

C) is based on a gregarious instinct

D) is described in Asch’s conformity study

A

The process of self-categorisation

A) leads to assimilation to the group norm

B) helps establish individuality

C) is based on a gregarious instinct

D) is described in Asch’s conformity study

215
Q

Moscovici criticised the traditional perspective of social influence for its ‘conformity bias’. This bias implies that

A) social influence works at multiple levels but with the same outcome

B) researchers interpret cultural adaptation as conformity

C) individuals always conform to majorities

D) intergroup convergence is interpreted as conformity

A

Moscovici criticised the traditional perspective of social influence for its ‘conformity bias’. This bias implies that

A) social influence works at multiple levels but with the same outcome

B) researchers interpret cultural adaptation as conformity

C) individuals always conform to majorities

D) intergroup convergence is interpreted as conformity

216
Q

The majority share the attitude that chocolate is the best flavour for ice-cream. However, I think vanilla ice-cream is the best. According to Nemeth’s ‘convergent-divergent’ theory, upon discovering that my attitude towards ice-cream flavours is in disagreement with that of the majority, I should feel _____________. This will then lead to ____________ thinking.

A) surprise and stress; convergent

B) guilt and shame; divergent

C) surprise and stress; divergent

D) fear and relief; convergent

A

The majority share the attitude that chocolate is the best flavour for ice-cream. However, I think vanilla ice-cream is the best. According to Nemeth’s ‘convergent-divergent’ theory, upon discovering that my attitude towards ice-cream flavours is in disagreement with that of the majority, I should feel _____________. This will then lead to ____________ thinking.

A) surprise and stress; convergent

B) guilt and shame; divergent

C) surprise and stress; divergent

D) fear and relief; convergent

PSY2042 (12 decks)

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