Health - Qualitative Research Flashcards
In science, it’s important to use the right _________ for the question. Whilst quantitative research asks who, what and how many, qualitative research asks _____ and ______.
Quantitative research is based on _________. This states that facts and values are _______ and that it is possible to conduct _______ and value-free research as the results are ________ by the researcher. This is ________ to the public.
Qualitative research is based on ________ where the researcher and the social world _______. It does not recognise that facts and values are ______ and acknowledges that the results are ________ by the researcher’s values. Hence, this research is not ________ and ____ generalisable to the public.
Both qualitative and quantitative _______ each other out. Each have their own _______ and weaknesses.
methodology
why
how
positivism distinct objective unaffected generalisable
interpretivism interacts distinct affected objective less
balance
strengths
Qualitative vs Quantitative - goals
Qual - to understand and interpret a phenomenon in rich detail - explore phenomenon
Quan - to test and confirm hypotheses, determine cause and effect, quantify, make predictions
Qualitative vs Quantitative - variables
Qual - holistic rather than isolated variables
Quan - specific, individual variables
Qualitative vs Quantitative - data format
Qual - words, pictures, objects
Quan - numbers
Qualitative vs Quantitative - question format
Qual - open
Quan - closed
Qualitative vs Quantitative - study design flexibility
Qual - flexible and iterative (arriving at a decision or a desired result by repeating rounds of analysis or a cycle of operations)
Quan - fixed design from beginning to end - follow the recipe
Qualitative vs Quantitative - sampling
Qual - small, purposive sampling, reflects diversity of population, or snowball effect to access hidden communities
Quan - large, random sample, probability sampling to statistically represent population
Qualitative vs Quantitative - data collection
Qual - dynamic process - interactive and responsive to emergent topics (adjust questions based on responses)
Quan - static process - questions are pre-formulated
Qualitative vs Quantitative - analysis
Qual - content analysis - identify themes, patterns, relationships, and underlying explanations
Quan - statistical analysis - identify relationships between variables and the strength of these relationships
Qualitative vs Quantitative - theory
Qual - build theory as data is collected
Quan - consider theory before collecting data
Qualitative research is used when
- ______ is known about a topic; limited ______.
- gain a particular ________ on the topic (from a particular group)
- when you want to _______ quantitative results.
- identify relevant ________ items - item generation - developing a new _______ - need to understand the problem to develop relevant questions for it.
little theory perspective explain questionnaire items measure
Common features of qualitative research
It uses _______ reasoning (uses observation to formulate theory, explores), not ______ reasoning (using known theory and applying it, focus on causality, theory/hypothesis —> confirmation)
It has a _____ validity (measures what it’s supposed to measure) but a _____ reliability (inconsistent results given same conditions)
Eg: describing perceptions of chemo accurately, but different rounds of treatment explained differently.
Generally, qualitative research is a _______ process (can go back and forth)
inductive
deductive
high
low
non-linear
METHODS
Name some methods used in qualitative research
- interviews
- observation - overt or covert
- document analysis
- oral histories
METHODS
There are several interview types used, including:
- _______ interview (set questions, set order), which is usually conducted when you have _____ knowledge of the topic
- semi-structured interview - uses _____ questions and _____ to gain further insight.
- ______ interview - covers one or two issues in detail. Interviewee often leads.
- _____ groups - capitalises on the _______ between group participants.
structured good open prompts in-depth focus communication
METHODS
Sampling in qualitative research is ________. This means participants are selected according to ______ criteria relevant to the research question. This ensures participants have the ________ or _______ that the researcher’s seek.
However, often researchers do ________ sampling because of practicalities with access, location, time, willingness, etc. It is ____ and _____.
Snowballing can also be used to recruit a sample that is _______ or ______. Influential people in these communities can give access to “______” populations.
Finally, _______ sampling is used in ______ theory studies. The research starts from ________ (small) sample and moves to more ________ (larger) sample. This occurs alongside data ______.
purposive
pre-selected
knowledge
experience
convenience
fast
easy
marginalised
stigmatised
hidden
theoretical grounded homogenous heterogenous analysis
How do you know if you have enough data in qualitative research?
Data saturation - researcher keeps sampling and analysing until no new data/themes appear. Usually wait until there are 3 consecutive interviews with no further information.
Member checking - go back and check themes with some participants to see if it resonates with them.
APPROACHES
Grounded theory is an approach often used in _____ research.
Aims: to collect and analyse data to describe the _______ of a phenomenon, the ________ between then and generate a ______ of the phenomenon that is “_______” in the data.
Methods: complex _______ process. Involves identifying/describing and relating codes to each other (________), recording thoughts and ideas as they evolve (________), and making sense of the data according to the emerging theory using ________.
health
components
relationships
theory
grounded
iterative
coding
memoing
diagrams
APPROACHES
Interpretive ___________ Analysis (IPA) aims to examine participants ________, personal experience and _______ of an event. It seeks to understand _______ experiences.
In it’s methods, it uses _____ questions to look for meaning for that person.
It may not have obvious ________, as the main goal is to describe phenomena and improve understanding.
Phenomonological
lifeworld
perception
lived
open
conclusion
APPROACHES
Ethnography seeks to understand human ______ and individuals’ _______ within a group _______. Usually this is done from the “_______”, or using _______. The ethnographer becomes ________ in the culture and records extensively.
behaviour experiences culture outside observation immersed
APPROACHES
Thematic analysis is another useful approach to identify, _______ and report patterns or _______. It is very _______ and not bound to a particular ________ approach. After describing the data, researchers ________ the broader ________ and implications.
A tool which sits in the family of thematic analysis is the _________ method. This provides a _______ for managing and mapping data.
analyse themes flexible theoretical interpret meanings
framework
system
APPROACHES
List the seven stages of the framework method
- transcription
- familiarisation with the interviews (including re-listening and reflective notes)
- coding
- developing working analytical framework
- applying the analytical framework
- charting data into framework matrix
- interpreting the data
APPROACHES
Framework analysis stage 3: coding
The researcher applies a _____ or code to describe what they have interpreted. This is to _____ the data for it to be ______ to other parts of the data.
These codes can refer to:
- substantive things (________)
- _______ (beliefs, attitudes)
- _______ (fear, frustration, etc)
_______ coding from multiple team members is important.
label
classify
compared
behaviour
values
emotions
independent
APPROACHES
Framework analysis stage 4 and 5: developing a working analytical framework and applying this framework.
After coding a few transcripts, team members should meet to agree on a ____ of codes. Some codes may be ______ together. This working framework may undergo several ______.
This framework is then applied to the _______. Special software can be used.
set
grouped
changes
transcripts
APPROACHES
Framework analysis stage 6: charting data into the framework matrix.
Qualitative research involves lots of _____ which has to be managed. Spreadsheets are often used to generate a _____ to chart data. This provides a ______ so the researcher can make sense of the data. It should include _______ quotes.
Rows = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Columns = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ or codes Cells = \_\_\_\_\_\_
data
matrix
structure
illustrative
cases
themes
quotes
APPROACHES
Framework analysis stage 7: Interpreting the data.
This identifies overarching _______ and _________.
themes
relationships
ENSURING RIGOUR
It is important in qualitative research to use the appropriate methods to maximise ______ and ______.
It is important to capture _____ views, not __________ views. To do this, we have to recruit a range of participants through ________ sampling (age, gender, SES, etc). New variables emerge in _______ and this may prompt ________ sampling. Sampling continues until ________ (no new themes emerging).
It is also important that the interviewer is suitably ______ in qualitative methods and becomes ________ in the data.
In coding, _______ researchers should code some of the transcripts to ensure ________ and improve the coding ______ (which groups key themes or concepts). The final coding frame should be ________ applied to all data at the end.
It is important to map ________ between themes in analysis to explain findings. Ensure themes/concepts/relationships are supported by the _____ and not your assumptions. This can be done by providing _______ for the themes/concepts (illustrative ______).
A ______ check can be used. This involves _________, where the same issues are compared from _______ sources, methods, etc. Further, member _______ can be conducted to review the researcher’s ________ of the data.
REFLEXIVE PRACTICE???
validity
reliability
all
representative
purposive
analysis
further
saturation
trained
immersed
multiple
reliability
frame
systematically
relationships
data
evidence
quotes
validity triangulation multiple checking interpretation
ENSURING RIGOUR
How can rigour be ensured in the framework method?
- Immersion
- Team-based coding
- Participant experiences - in charting use participants’ own expressions to describe the data
- Systematic analysis
- Including contextual data - matrix has to be flexible enough to include non-interview data (field notes or reflexive practice)
- Audit-trail (from original raw data to final themes)
There are some limitations to the framework method, including:
- temptation to _______ (with the systematic approach, matrix format, etc)
- time ________ and uses lots of _______.
- high _______ needs (to successfully use the method)
quantify
consuming
resources
training
