Glossary Terms II Flashcards
Positivism
A philosophical paradigm that proposes an objective truth exists and can only be understood if directly observable.
Post Hoc Analysis
Allows examination of every possible pairing of group means for a particular independent variable after one has concluded that there are main effect in an ANOVA
Post-Positivism
A philosophical paradigm that proposes truth can only be approximated because of inherent errors present when measuring reality.
Poverty
The struggle to meet and maintain basic needs such as food, clothing, and shelter
Power
(1) In a group context, having control over the resources the group values or desires. (2) In hypothesis testing, the likelihood of detecting a significant relationship between variables when one is really there
Power Negotiations
A form of conflict resolution that occurs when individuals vie to have the strongest influence on the outcome and may involve deceitful tactics like relaying false information and cheating.
Power Tests
Assessments that are designed to prevent test-takers from attaining perfect scores by including difficult test items that few individuals can answer correctly.
Practice Effects
The phenomenon of research participants knowing what to expect and learning something from a pretest that helps to improve their performance on future tests.
Preconscious Mind.
That Part of consciousness that combines characteristics of both the conscious and unconscious minds
Pre-experiemental Designs
A type of experimental design that does not use random assignment
Prejudice
Formulation of preconceived opinions or judgments about an individual or group without sufficient knowledge
Prescribing the Symptom
In strategic family counseling, the counselor tells clients to keep engaging in their troublesome behavior; by following the counselor’s advice, clients recognize that they are choosing to perpetuate the problem.
Pretend Technique
Encourages clients to simulate their symptoms in order to realize that they are able to exert some control over what they say and do, as well as over the outcome of the situation
Primary Reinforcers
Reinforcers that satisfy a primary need
Privacy Policy
For HIPAA, guidelines dictating with whom protected health information may be shared
Privilege
The ability of an individual to receive benefits, which are not as readily available to others, as a result of his or her membership in a dominant group
Privileged Communication
A legal term that protects counselors from having to reveal information about a client during a legal proceeding.
Proactive Inhibition
A loss of memory that occurs when old information interferes with newly learned information
Probability sampling
A type of quantitative sampling that involves sampling a known population using randomization
Problem Externalization
A technique used in narrative therapy in which the counselor seeks to help clients distance themselves from their problems. Problems, in relation to clients, are seen as separate, outside entities.
Problem-Saturated Stories
A term used in narrative counseling to refer to self-narratives that are harmful and detrimental to client well-being
Process Evaluation
A type of program evaluation that focuses on the process of implementing the program to evaluate its progress at various points
Professional Associations
Counseling organizations that seek to further the counseling profession by uniting members through a shared identity, advocating on behalf of the profession, providing professional development opportunities, and offering access to counseling-related resources
Professional Counselor
A professional who works with individuals and families to overcome developmental and unexpected life changes in order to facilitate client wellness and personal growth.
Program Goals
Broad statements that indicate how the career intervention program will respond to population’s needs
Program Objectives
Specific, measurable, action-oriented steps that must be attained to accomplish a particular program goal.
Prosocial behavior
Demonstrating a concern for the welfare of others and acting in a way that benefits others
Protected Health Information (PHI)
Individually identifiable health information protected by HIPAA
Proxemics
The physical distance between people as they interact
Psychiatric Nursing
A specialization within the nursing profession that is concerned with the prevention and treatment of psychiatric disorders
Psychiatrist
Trained medical doctors licensed to treat clients with severe mental disorders. Unlike other mental health professionals, psychiatrists are able to prescribe medications, perform physical examinations, and order lab testing for clients
Psychoanalyst
Professionals trained to assist clients in resolving issues through psychoanalysis
Psychodrama
(1) An exercise used in Gestalt therapy that asks clients to act out their internal conflicts and related emotions in order to gain clarity on their unfinished business (2) An approach use din group therapy to bring about mental and emotional catharsis for the purpose of tension release
Psychodynamic Model
One of the earliest theories of family counseling, developed by Nathan Ackerman. This model was based on the key concepts of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and explore the role of anxiety, defense mechanisms, and unconscious conflicts and desires in the functioning of individuals and families.
Psychoeducational Groups
A group work model that emphasizes skill development through various nonthreatening skill-building exercises but at the same time encourages discussion, sharing, and feedback among members.
Psychological Aging
Categorization of aging based on one’s perception of personal age
Psychological First Aid (PFA)
A crisis response method that focuses first on meeting individuals’ survival needs, then on meeting their psychological needs, and finally on establishing support networks
Psychologist
A mental health professional who specializes in diagnosing and treating emotional disturbances, behavioral problems, and finally on establishing support networks.
Psychosexual Theory
Freud’s theory of personality development
Psychotherapy groups
Groups that are designed to treat those who may be experiencing severe or chronic problems in their lives.
Punctuation
The conviction by individuals that their verbal communication, especially during a conflict, occurs in reaction to someone else
Purposive Sampling
type of sampling used primarily in qualitative research to obtain information rich cases that allow for maximum depth and detail regarding a particular phenomenon
Pushbutton Technique
An Adlerian counseling technique used to teach clients that they play a role in maintaining their problems. specifically, clients are encouraged to focus on their positive feelings rather than negative.
p value
The likelihood of obtaining a result at least as extreme as the one observed assuming the null hypothesis is true
Qualitative Research
A type of research that is concerned with how behavior occurs, uses data that is represented in words rather than numbers, and usually takes the form of interview transcripts, field notes, pictures, video, or artifacts.
Quantitative Research
A type of research that focuses on capturing the relationship between two variables that can be measured numerically.
Quasi-experiemntal Designs
A type of experimental design used when it is impossible or inappropriate to randomly assign participants to group.
Questioning
(1) A basic counseling skill in which counselors ask open-ended and closed-ended questions to obtain further information from clients, often for clarification or to encourage deeper exploration of topics (2) An individuals curiosity about his or her sexual orientation
Quid Pro Quo
The propensity of individuals to treat others as they are treated.
Race
A social and political classification that identifies individuals by distinguishing physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, hair texture, or eye shape
Racial Identity
A sense of belongingness and communality that is derived from one’s identification with one or more racial groups
Racial Interaction Theory
Developed by Helms, this theory conceptualized how whites and POC, at various racial identity development statuses, might interact and if those interactions would be maladaptive
Racism
Involves the belief that a group of people are inferior to one’s own group due to recognized or perceived differences in physical characteristics.
Rand Assignment
Involves assigning participants to different groups, such as a treatment or control group, to ensure that groups are equal and that any systematic group differences are due to change
Random Selection
Involves selecting participants from a population so that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
Range
The most basic indicator of variability, computed by subtracting the largest value from the smallest value
Rating Scales
Used to evaluate the quantity of an attribute
REBT
A counseling theory developed by Albert Ellis, which addressees the relationship between thinking and emotion
Rational Emotive Imagery
A technique used in REBT to assist clients in disputing hteir irrational beliefs. Clients are asked to imagine their worst fears and to stay with the difficult, painful emotions that surface.
Ratio Scale
A scale that possess the qualities of nominal ordinal and interval scales and has an absolute zero point
Raw Score
A score that has not been converted into a derived score
Reactive Theories
Theories of human development that propose that people are passive and react to environmental stimuli to accommodate to changes
Readiness Tests
A group of criterion-referenced achievement assessments that indicate the minimum level of skills needed to move from one grade level to the next
Reality Distortion
Occurs when a therapeutic group provides an example of social reality that is not achievable in the outside world
Reality Therapy
A type of therapy, based on choice theory whose basic premise is that people make choices in order to meet their five basic needs
Reciprocal Inhibition
A principle developed by Joseph Wolpe that assumes a person cannot engage in two mutually exclusive events simultaneously. _____ is used in systematic desensitization.
Reciprocity
Allows a counselor who is licensed in one state to work in another state without having to reapply for licensure or fulfill additional requirements.
Recognition
One of the four stages in the spiritual identity development model
Recycling
A term used by Donald Super to refer to the idea that an individual can re-enter a developmental stage they have been through before
Redundancy Principle
A family’s tendency to interact with each other in the same way.
Reflecting
A basic counseling skill that involves verbal responses to clients that indicate that the professional counselor understands their emotions, thoughts, or the meaning behind their disclosures
Reframing
A strategic family therapy technique that involves interpreting a family’s situation in a new way to encourage family members to view their problem in a more favorable light
Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities in federally sponsored programs
Reinforcement Schedules
Dictate when and how often a behavior is reinforced
Reinforcers
In operation conditioning, stimuli that increase the likelihood a behavior will reoccur
Relabeling/Reframing
A strategic family therapy technique that involves interpreting a family’s situation in a new way to encourage family members to view their problem in a more favorable light.
Relational Approaches
Propose that relationships play an important role int he career development and decision-making processes of children and adolescents
Reliability
Consistency of scores attained by the same person on different administrations of the same test
Reliability Coefficient
A measure of reliability of a set of scores on a test
Religion
The institutionalized expression of an organized set of beliefs and ritualized practices that guide a person or group’s understanding of reality
Replacement Needs
Occur in the labor market when worker are needed to replace those who have left the workforce due to retirement, returning to school, assuming household and child-raising duties, or choosing not to work.
Research Hypothesis
A testable, concise statement involving the expected relationship between two or more variables
Research Question
A statement that identifies what a research study hopes to examine
Resilience
An individual’s ability to adapt to negative life conditions or spring back form adverse situations in order to return to a positive level of functioning
Resiliency Factors
Assist an individual in overcoming risk factors and maintaining positive functioning in spite of adverse circumstances
Response Cost
A behavioral technique that reduces undesirable behaviors by removing a positive reinforcement
Responsibilities of Users of Standardized Tests (RUST)
A policy statemtn published by the Association for Assessment in Counseling and Education (AACE) to ensure counselors use standardized tests with clients in an accurate, fair, and responsible manner
Restructuring
An intervention that involves actively working to change the structure of a family system
Retrieval theory
Asserts that information is held permanently in long term storage and that forgetting is the result of insufficient cues that fail to retrieve the information
Retroactive Inhibition
A loss of memory that occurs when new information interferes with information previously learned
Reverse Role-Playing
A technique used in REBT to help clients dispute their irrational beliefs
Rights negotiations
A form of conflict resolution that involves the legality of what is right and uses norms, policies, and rules
Risk factors
Include characteristics that place individuals at high risk of developing mental disorders, academic problems, or personal-social difficulties
Ritual Prescriptions
Paradoxical assignments that indicate certain actions to be taken on specific days and times by particular family members. The goal of rituals is to help families try new ways of behaving and interacting.
Carl Rogers
An American psychologist who founded the client-centered approach to counseling
Role
Broadly refers to a set of interconnected behaviors, rights, and obligations that are associated with a particular social situation
Role Ambiguity
Occurs when a group member is not sure of the role expectations or behavior requirements they should fulfill
Role Conflict
Occurs when group members experience conflicting demands of various roles such as when a member who prefers to avoid emotional expression is encouraged to self-disclose reactions to emotionally lade group content and process; that is, the roles a member plays come into conflict with each other
Role Differentiation
In group counseling, the process of group members adopting different roles within the group
Role Playing
A behavioral technique used in counseling in which the counselor demonstrates specific skills and applications
Role Salience
The importance individuals assign to each life role throughout their lifetime
Rules
A term used in general systems theory to refer to the unique family rules every family establishes and expects its members to abide by.
Sarcasm
An attempt to mask and not express anger
Satisfaction
In the theory of work adjustment, an employee’s contentment with the work environment.
Satisfactoriness
In the theory of work adjustment, the employer’s satisfaction with an individual’s job performance.
Virginia Satir
An American psychotherapist who believed in the innate goodness of humans, their desire to grow and learn, and their ability to change.She identified four types of dysfunctional family communication patterns.
Saturation
In qualitative research, data collection reaching a point of redundancy – that is, the point where no new data refute findings of previously collected data.
Saving Face
A cultural value commonly endorsed by Asian Americans whereby an individual’s behaviors are seen as being reflective of the family and thus one should protect the honor of the family
Scale
A collection of items or questions that combine to form a composite score on a single variable
Scaling Questions
A technique used in narrative therapy and SFBT that asks clients to approximate their progress
Schema
A mental structure that processes or integrates experiences, information, or perceptions
Schlossberg’s Transition Theory
proposes four different types of transitions that can occur throughout an individual’s life: anticipated, unanticipated, chronic hassles, and nonevents. Maintains that an individual’s willingness and ability to deal with transitions depends on the situation, self, support, and strategies
School-to-Work Act of 1994
Provides all students with equal opportunities to participate in programs that combine academic and occupational education, combine school-based learning with work based learning, and prepare students for postsecondary education
Screening and Selection Measures
Help leaders assess potential member attitudes toward groups, assess prosocial attitudes and problematic group member interpersonal behaviors, and select group members
Scriptotherapy
A cognitive technique, commonly referred to as therapeutic writing, through which clients are asked to write down their thoughts for clarity and self reflection
Secondary Reinforcers
Reinforcers associated with a primary need (e.g., a token that can be traded in for food)
Seek Unique Outcomes
A technique used in SFBT that asks clients to identify times when their problems were not present or were less pronounced
Self-Categorization
An important piece of social identity theory, in which the self is seen as an object to be classified into membership in a social group that gives worth to the person
Self-Disclosure
a counseling skill that involves sharing personal information with clients to help connect with the client, give feedback, or provide the client with alternative perspectives or ideas
Self-Efficacy
term developed by Albert Bandura that refers to an individual’s confidence in his or her ability to perform a given behavior or accomplish a given task
Self-Instructional Training
A technique used in cognitive-behavior modification to teach clients how to alter their maladaptive thoughts and behavior in order to replace negative self-talk with self-enhancing cognitions
Self-Narratives
IN narrative therapy, the stories clients construct about themselves and their lives