Final Overview: Appraisals (Tests and Diagonsis)

Question 1

Standardized tests

Answer 1

Standardized tests have uniform procedures for scoring and
administration. In addition, these instruments have validity and reliability
and norm data which has been investigated and analyzed.

Question 2

The Mental Measurements Yearbook and Tests in Print

Answer 2

The Mental Measurements Yearbook and Tests in Print from the
Buros Institute provide counselors with information on thousands of
tests. Online versions are now available. Approximately 2,500 of the
tests have been critically analyzed by Buros.

Question 3

Raw Score

Answer 3

A score is “raw” if it is unaltered. Raw scores can be converted to
standard scores (e.g., t scores, z scores, percentile rank, standard
deviation or stanine) so that the scores relate to the normal
bell curve. The range is the highest score minus the lowest score
(some exams will add 1 to the answer.)

Question 4

Percentile rank

Answer 4

Percentile rank tells the counselor the percent of scores equal
to or below the score you are investigating. Hence, a client who is at
the 75th percentile scored equal to or better than 75% of the people
who took the exam. It does not necessarily imply that he or she got
75% of the answers correct since a score of 20% correct might be higher
than 75% of the examinees!

Question 5

Three measures of central tendency:

Answer 5

Three measures of central tendency: the mean or arithmetic
average (e.g., if your gas bill for a year is $144, then your mean bill per
month is $12 or 144 divided by 12); the mode is the most frequently
occurring score or category: and the median or middle score when
the data are ranked from highest to lowest. In a normal curve they
all have the same point in the center of the bell shape. When a curve
leans, we say it is skewed. If the tail points to the left, the curve is
negatively skewed; if it points to the right, it is positively skewed.

Question 6

Standard deviation (SD)

Answer 6

Standard deviation (SD) is a measure of variability or dispersion
of scores. Are the scores bunched up close to the mean
or are the scores spread out? A standard deviation of 1 is a z-score
or standard score of one. A standard deviation of -2 is a z-score of
negative 2, and so on. T scores have a mean of 50 and the standard
deviation is 10. If your test asks: What is a T score when the standard
deviation is 2; the answer is 70. If it asks: What is the T score for a
standard deviation of -3; the answer is 20.

Question 7

Areas under the normal curve you should commit to memory.

Answer 7

68% of the scores will fall between plus/minus 1 standard deviation from the mean; 95% of all scores will fall between plus/minus 2
standard deviations; and 99.7% of all scores fall between 3 plus/minus
standard deviations. It is safe to say that virtually all scores fall
between plus/minus 3 standard deviations of the mean. This is known
as the empirical 68-95-99.7 normal curve rule.

Question 8

Validity

Answer 8

Validity is the most important property of a psychological test.
Does the test, test what it purports to test? The validity of standardized
tests in our fi eld is said to be on a par with instruments used in
the medical fi eld.

Question 9

Reliability:

Answer 9

Reliability: Is the test consistent? Will it give the similar results
if we administer it again and again. If an IQ test yields a score of 100
today and 130 for the same client tomorrow it is not valid!

Question 10

Reliable Test

Answer 10

A reliable test is not always valid, but a valid test is always
reliable.

Question 11

Interrater reliability

Answer 11

Interrater reliability describes the consistency of two or more
raters. If two counselors read the same test reports and come up with
the same diagnosis, then interrater reliability or agreement is
high. If they come up with different diagnoses then it is low.

A test or instrument that is only normed on the majority culture
is not appropriate for cultural minorities since it is misleading and
could cause discrimination.

Question 12

Tests can give a false positive or a false negative.

Answer 12

Tests can give a false positive or a false negative.

Question 13

Aptitude tests

Answer 13

Aptitude tests predict potential. For example, a high score on
an aptitude test for music doesn’t imply that you are a great musician
but that with the correct training and practice you could excel in this
area.

Question 14

Achievement tests

Answer 14

Achievement tests give you the current accomplishments, what
has been learned or the level of performance achieved up to this point
in time (e.g., she is reading at the sixth grade level).

Question 15

Intelligence tests or IQ tests such as the Wechsler

Answer 15

Intelligence tests or IQ tests such as the Wechsler or the
Binet attempt to measure mental abilities. IQ tests are very controversial
and have been a source of debate for counselors.

Question 16

Power tests Time (slow performance)

Answer 16

Power tests Time (slow performance) is not a factor like it is in
so-called speed tests.

Question 17

Projective tests

Answer 17

Projective tests There is no correct answer. The client merely
looks at an ink blot, a vague picture, or an incomplete sentence. The
client’s answer is assumed to be a projection of his or her personality.
Thus two clients look at the same Rorschach Ink blot Card or TAT
picture and see something totally different.

Scoring projective tests is subjective. Thus one rater could score
it differently than another rater. Again, this phenomenon is
called interrater reliability.

Question 18

Regression to the mean

Answer 18

Regression to the mean states that if a client scores exceptionally
low or exceptionally high on a test, then the client with the low
score will go up on the next administration; while the client with the
high score will go down toward the mean or average. Chance factors
or everyday luck probably infl uenced the fi rst score.

Question 19

Diagnosis generally implies

Answer 19

Diagnosis generally implies that a label is placed on the
client using a classification system, generally the DSM. Insurance
companies virtually always require a diagnosis before they will
pay for treatment. Moreover, most other professionals (e.g., psychologists
and psychiatrists) use diagnostic terminology and thus counselors
need to use the same classifi cation system and terminology.

Question 20

Correlation

Answer 20

Correlation is not the same as causality. Correlation is simply
an association. The correlation between people who have an umbrella
open and rain is very high, but opening your umbrella does not cause it to rain.

Correlations go from negative 1 to 0 to positive 1. Zero
means no correlation while positive 1 and negative 1 are perfect correlations. A negative .5 is not higher than a correlation of -.5.
In fact, a correlation of -.8 is stronger than a correlation of .5.

In a positive correlation, when X goes up, Y goes up. For
example, when you study more, your GPA goes up.

In a negative correlation, when X goes up Y goes down. For
example, the more you brush your teeth, the less you will be
plagued by cavities.

Question 21

Research is quantitative when one quantifies or measure things.

Answer 21

Research is quantitative when one quantifies or measure things.
Quantitative research yields numbers. When research does not use
numerical data, we call it qualitative research. All research has
flaws, sometimes referred to as bubbles.

Question 22

True Experiment

Answer 22

True Experiment Two or more groups are used.

The people are picked via random sampling and placed in groups
using random assignment. Systematic sampling where every
nth person is chosen can also be used, however, researchers still
prefer random sampling and random assignment.

Question 23

Quasi-experimental research

Answer 23

When the groups are not picked at random or the researcher cannot
control the IV then it is a quasi rather than a true experiment.
Quasi-experimental research does not ensure causality.

Question 24

independent variable (IV)

Answer 24

The experimental groups get the independent variable (IV)

also known as the experimental variable.

Question 25

control group

Answer 25

The control group does not receive the IV.

Question 26

DV or dependent

variable.

Answer 26

The outcome data in the study is called the DV or dependent variable. If we want to see if eating carrots raises one’s IQ then eating carrots is the IV while the IQ scores at the end of the
study would be the DV.

Question 27

null hypothesis

Answer 27

Each experiment has a null hypothesis: there is no signifi cant
difference in people’s IQs who eat carrots and those who don’t
eat carrots.

Question 28

The experimental or alternative hypothesis

Answer 28

The experimental or alternative hypothesis is:
there is a significant difference between people’s IQ’s who do eat
carrots versus those who do not.

Question 29

When a researcher rejects a null hypothesis

Answer 29

When a researcher rejects a null hypothesis that is true, it is a
type I alpha error. When a researcher accepts null when it
should have been rejected, we say that a type II beta error has
occurred.

Question 30

N = 1

Answer 30

is known as a single subject design or case study and thus
does not rely on IV, DV, control group, etc. Case studies are
becoming more popular.

Question 31

Demand characteristics

Answer 31

Demand characteristics are evident when subjects in a
study have cues regarding what the researcher desires or does
not desire that infl uence their behavior. This can confound an
experiment rendering the research inaccurate.

Question 32

obtrusive or a reactive measure

Answer 32

If subjects know they are being observed we refer to the
process as an obtrusive or a reactive measure. Observers’
presence can influence subject’s behavior rather than merely the
experimental variable or treatment modality. When subjects are
not aware that they are being measured we say that it is an
unobtrusive measure.

Question 33

Internal validity

Answer 33

Internal validity is high when an experimental has few flaws and
thus the findings are accurate. In other words, the IV caused the
changes in the DV, not some other factor (known as confounding
extraneous variables or artifacts). When internal validity is low
the researcher didn’t measure what he thought he measured.

Question 34

External validity

Answer 34

External validity is high when the results in a study can be

generalized to other settings.

Question 35

t test

Answer 35

A t test is a popular parametric test for comparing two means.

Question 36

ANOVA or analysis of variance

Answer 36

The ANOVA or analysis of variance (also called a one-way
ANOVA) is used when you have two or more means to compare.
The t test and the ANOVA are parametric measures for normally
distributed populations. The ANOVA provides F values and the
F test will tell you if signifi cant differences are present. Use
the MANOVA or multivariate analysis of variance when you
are investigating more than one DV. Use a factorial analysis
of variance when you are investigating more than one IV/
experimental variable (i.e., if you have two IVs it would be
called a two-way ANOVA, three IVs, a three-way ANOVA,
etc.).

Question 37

If the population is not necessarily normal

Answer 37

If the population is not necessarily normal then a nonparametric
test such as a Chi Square (the most common nonparametric
test) or Kruskal-Wallace (similar to the ANOVA) can be used.

Question 38

causal comparative

design.

Answer 38

If the researcher did not manipulate the variable and you are
looking at after-the-fact data, then the research is not a true
experiment but rather an ex post facto or so-called causalcomparative
design.

Question 39

Descriptive statistics

Answer 39

Descriptive statistics are statistics that describe central tendency
like the mean, median, the mode, the range, quartiles, the variance,
and the standard deviation.

Question 40

Statistical analyses

Answer 40

Statistical analyses include correlation coeffi cients, t tests,
ANOVAs, Analysis of Covariance, Chi square, Kruskal Wallis etc.

Question 41

Cohort studies

Answer 41

Cohort studies examine a group of people who have something
in common (e.g., all soldiers who fought in Vietnam or all counselors
who received their license in 2007).

Question 42

Longitudinal research

Answer 42

Longitudinal research takes place when the same individuals
are evaluated over a period of time. It is usually contrasted with
cross-sectional research that relies on observation or data from a
given point in time.

Question 43

Formative evaluation

Answer 43

Formative evaluation takes place during treatment or while a program is going on while summative or outcome evaluation occurs
at the end of a program or treatment (e.g., after the final session
of counseling).