G.I and Endocrine System Exam Study Guide

Question 1

What are the functions of the pancreas?

Answer 1

• As an endocrine gland, it secretes the hormones insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin into the bloodstream, to help regulate blood sugar levels.
• Its exocrine function is to produce pancreatic juice, which is necessary for life, because it is vital in digestion.
• It is produced by the acinar cells
• The acinar cells secrete three main enzymes that assist in digestion of specific nutrients:
  
  • Pancreatic Amylase
    
    • Starch/Carbohydrates
  • Trypsin
    
    • Protein
  • Pancreatic Lipase
    
    • Fats, Lipids, (into triglycerides)

Question 2

Differentiate between exocrine and endocrine glands.

Answer 2

• Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
• Exocrine glands secrete hormones into ducts.
• Exocrine glands secrete special substances (hormones and/or other materials) into ducts that open onto the body’s external or internal surfaces.
  
  • Exocrine glands include sweat, mammary, and salivary glands, as well as mucous membranes and lacrimal (tear) glands.
  • Examples of exocrine secretions are
    
    • sweat
    • milk
    • bile
    • tears
    • pancreatic fluid.
• Endocrine glands ( ductless glands , glands of internal secretion) secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, where they are transported throughout the body.
  
  • These hormones act on remote tissues ( target tissues ) via endocrine signaling .
  • Certain glands can perform both endocrine and exocrine functions.

Question 3

What are the Glands of reproduction?

Answer 3

• Leydig cells of testes produce testosterone
• Androgens produce masculinizing effects
• Ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone (influences blood clotting, thyroid and nerve function and the gallbladder)

Question 4

What is the intrinsic factor in relation to the G.I tract.

Answer 4

• A protein that helps your intestines absorb vitamin B12, made by cells in the stomach lining.
• If a patient has pernicious anemia, they are lacking in B12 (intrinsic factor)

Question 5

What are the nursing interventions before during and after a G.I Tract exam?

Answer 5

• Before the test,
  
  • The client may be instructed to avoid acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin), ibuprofen (Motrin), or anticoagulants for 5–7 days because these medications prolong bleeding times and may cause excessive bleeding if tissue is removed during the procedure.
  • A mouthpiece protects the client’s mouth and the endoscope tube.
  • Inform the client that the endoscope tube will not hinder normal breathing.
  • The procedure takes 15 min–1 hr.
• During The test,
  
  • During the procedure, air is instilled into the stomach.
  • The client will feel fullness and pressure, which is necessary to expand the stomach fully so that the entire interior surface can be visualized.
• After oral endoscopy
  
  • Observe the client closely for dyspnea (difficult breathing) because the passage of the tube may have irritated the throat or caused swelling.
  • If the client has undergone a dilatation (stretching) procedure, observe for bleeding, pain, dysphagia (difficulty in swallowing), dyspnea, or a change in vital signs.
  • Because the dye is sequestered in the GI tract, diarrhea is a common side effect.
  • Pancreatitis and hemorrhage are the most common complications.
• After an ERCP with sphincterotomy, closely monitor the client’s pain intensity and effective response to analgesics.
• Routine vital signs, IV hydration, antibiotics, and follow-up laboratory work are important for the next 12–24 hr.

Question 6

How is food digested? (Mouth to anus)

Answer 6

mouth → pharynx → esophagus →lower esophageal /cardiac sphincter→stomach(chyme)→small intestine (duodenum→jejunum →ileum)→large intestine(ascending,transverse,descending)→rectum->anus

Question 7

Functions of MSH, PTH, FSH and CCK

Answer 7

• Cholecystokinin (CCK)
  
  • Stimulates release of digestive enzymes from pancreas, release of bile from gallbladder; suppresses hunger
• Parathormone or (PTH)
  
  • Regulates the amounts of calcium and phosphorus in the blood.
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
  
  • Stimulated by GnRH
  • Stimulates growth and secretion of eggs in ovaries (female) and sperm in testes (male)
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
  
  • MSH is an important hormone secreted by the middle lobe of the pituitary gland.
  • MSH influences skin pigmentation and is chemically similar to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

Question 8

What is the occult blood testing and what does it do?

Answer 8

• The fecal occult blood test is to check stool samples for hidden (occult) blood.
• Occult blood in the stool may indicate colon cancer or polyps in the colon or rectum

Question 9

What are the functions of the thyroid gland?

Answer 9

• The epithelial cells of the thyroid synthesize two hormones:
  
  • Thyroxine (Tetraiodothyronine or T4)
  • Triiodothyronine (T3) from the iodine.
• Thyroid hormones regulate body metabolism, controlling the rate at which cells function.
  
  • Protein synthesis relies on these hormones, and they also affect sensitivity to catecholamines (important in stress responses) and sympathetic amines (e.g., dopamine and epinephrine).
• Because the thyroid requires iodine to form T4 , a person’s diet must supply iodine

Question 10

What are the functions of the thyroid gland in relation to prolactin?

Answer 10

• Prolactin (PRL), stimulated by prolactin-releasing hormone ( PRH ), and secreted by lactotrophic cells, is secreted by the anterior pituitary and stimulates breast development and milk production in women following pregnancy.
• (PRL also exists in men, but its function is not known.)

Question 11

Define metabolism. What is the difference between basal metabolism, catabolism, and anabolism?

Answer 11

• Metabolism
  
  • is defined as the sum total of all the changes, both physical and chemical, that occur within the body.
• Basal Metabolism
  
  • The amount of energy used by the body at rest is called as basal metabolism.
  • This is the amount that the body needs to sustain life.
• Catabolism (destruction, catabolic phase)
  
  • Is the breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy.
  • Cellular respiration is a series of catabolic reactions.
  • The end products of catabolism resulting from cellular respiration are:
    
    • Carbon dioxide
    • Water
    • Energy
• Anabolism (constructive metabolism)
  
  • Is the synthesis of simpler substances into new, organized substances to be used by body cells
  • using products of catabolism to build and repair body cells and maintain life
  • Examples of anabolism include synthesis of glycogen, triglycerides, or proteins

Question 12

What is the functions of the Pharynx?

Answer 12

The contraction of this organ results in continuation of the act of swallowing and pushes the food into the esophagus.

Question 13

What is the function of the Epiglottis?

Answer 13

The epiglottis is a small, movable “lid” just above the larynx that prevents food and drink from entering your windpipe.

Question 14

What is the function of the Duodenum?

Answer 14

• The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine.
• The main role of the duodenum is to complete the first phase of digestion.
  
  • In this section of the intestine, food from the stomach is mixed with enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder.
  • The enzymes and bile help break down food.

Question 15

How is bile released and stored?

Answer 15

• Liver
  
  • Manufactures bile salts, detergent
• Gallbladder
  
  • Stores bile until needed
  • Bile Duct
  • Conducts bile from the gallbladder to the small intestine

Question 16

What do bile do in relation to the G.I tract?

Answer 16

• Bile is a fluid that is made and released by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
• Bile helps with digestion.
• It breaks down fats into fatty acids, which can be taken into the body by the digestive tract.

Question 17

What are the functions of the small intestine?

Answer 17

• It helps to further digest food coming from the stomach. It absorbs nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins) and water from food so they can be used by the body.

Question 18

What are the functions of the large intestine?

Answer 18

• The purpose of the large intestine is to absorb water and salts from the material that has not been digested as food, and get rid of any waste products left over.
• By the time food mixed with digestive juices reaches your large intestine, most digestion and absorption has already taken place.
• Formation and storage of faeces

Question 19

What is a cholecystogram?

Answer 19

A cholecystogram is an x-ray procedure used to help evaluate the gallbladder.

Question 20

Describe the actions of hormones responsible for calcium balance.

Answer 20

• Calcitonin ( CT ) or thyrocalcitonin
  
  • CT (and parathyroid hormone) are involved in the maintenance of calcium levels.
  • When the circulating calcium level is high, calcitonin responds by promoting increased storage of calcium in bones and increased renal excretion of calcium, resulting in lowered serum calcium.
• Parathormone or parathyroid hormone (PTH)
  
  • That regulates the amounts of calcium and phosphorus in the blood, which in turn affects nerve and muscle irritability.
  • When the blood calcium level is too low, PTH is secreted, increasing the number and size of osteoclasts (large cells associated with reabsorption of bone).
  • Therefore, PTH causes calcium to leave the bones and also enhances reabsorption of calcium and magnesium and excretion of phosphorus in the kidneys.
• PTH also affects the kidneys by promoting calcitriol formation.
• This is a hormone synthesized from vitamin D, which increases the rate of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus absorption from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood.

Question 21

What does it mean when calcium is secreted back into the circulatory system?

Answer 21

• When the circulating calcium level is high, calcitonin responds by promoting increased storage of calcium in bones and increased renal excretion of calcium, resulting in lowered serum calcium.

Question 22

What are the functions of the thyroid gland?

Answer 22

• Regulates body metabolism and control rate at which cells function
• Secretes T4, T3 and Calcitonin
• Stores iodine

Question 23

What happens in the jejunum and the ileum?

Answer 23

• Jejunum:
  
  • Helps to further break down food taking the nutrients, vitamins, proteins etc.
  • For the rest of the body, this is also known as the fasting intestine because it is almost always empty
• Ileum:
  
  • The ileum absorbs bile acids, fluid, and vitamin B-12.)

Question 24

What is the function of the gallbladder?

Answer 24

• Its major functions are storage and release of bile, as needed in the small intestine for fat emulsification.
• It also concentrates bile by absorbing water and salts

Question 25

What are the structures and functions of the endocrine system?

Answer 25

• Hypothalamus
  
  • Control Center (ADH & Oxytocin)
• Pituitary
  
  • Master Gland
• Thyroid
  
  • Metabolism (T3 + T4)
  • Calcitonin
• Parathyroid
  
  • Calcium (PTH)
• Adrenal Glands
  
  • Cortex
    
    • Steroids (Cortisol & Aldosterone)
  • Medulla
    
    • Catecholamine (Epi & Norepi)
• Gonads
  
  • Sex hormones
• Pancreas
  
  • Blood sugar (Insulin & Glucagon)
• Functions:
  
  • Growth & Maturation
  • Metabolism (rate which everything operates)
  • Reproduction

Question 26

How does aging affects calcium levels?

Answer 26

• Levels of parathyroid hormone rise, making the diagnosis of primary hyperparathyroidism more difficult.
• Vitamin D levels decline, affecting the rate of calcium absorption from the intestine.

Question 27

Know how diabetes affects the body?

Answer 27

• Diabetes
  
  • Type 1: body does not produce insulin; insulin dependent;
  • Type 2: body produces insulin, but doesn’t know how to use it (overweight patients)
• Polyuria: a lot of urine
• Polydipsia: very thirsty
• Polyphagia: very hungry

Question 28

What happens when food enters the body and how does it get form the stomach to the small intestine?

Answer 28

• The physical breakdown of food is
  accomplished by the process of mastication.
• The process of churning the food takes place in the pylorus of the stomach.
• Chemical breakdown of food occurs by the release of various enzymes.
• Dilution of the food entering the digestive tract is accomplished by water and various enzymes.
• Absorption of the dissolved molecules occurs in the small intestine. The molecules are then taken into circulation.

Question 29

What are the functions of the liver in the G.I tract?

Answer 29

• Secretion of bile Absorption of bilirubin after destruction of old red blood cells (RBCs)
• Detoxification of blood (removal of toxins or poisons)
• Storage of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)
• Formation of vitamin A and some nonessential amino acids
• Storage of vitamin B complex and iron
• Formation of plasma proteins (albumin, prothrombin, globulins)
• Synthesis of urea, a waste product from protein anabolism
• Storage of glucose as glycogen (helps regulate glucose levels)
• Synthesis of clotting factors (fibrinogen; prothrombin; factors V, VII, IX, X)
• Formation of triglycerides and cholesterol
• Secretion of heparin (anticoagulant)
• Synthesis of immunoglobulins
• Breaking down of fats (lipids)
• Metabolism of carbohydrates; storage of fats and carbohydrates
• Regulation of amino acids
• Production of body heat
• Storage of minerals
• Production of lymph

Question 30

What is the Definition of Erythropoietin?

Answer 30

A hormone secreted by the kidneys that increases rate of production of rbcs in response to falling levels of oxygen in the tissues

Question 31

What causes Rickets?

Answer 31

• A lack of vitamin D or calcium is the most common cause of rickets.
• Vitamin D largely comes from exposing the skin to sunlight, but it’s also found in some foods, such as oily fish and eggs.

Question 32

Where does Iodine come from?

Answer 32

Iodine is found mainly in animal protein foods and sea vegetables, and to a lesser extent in fortified foods like breads, cereals, and milk.

Question 33

What do T-Cells do?

Answer 33

• T cells are essential for the development of cellular immunity and for the body’s response to invading organisms.
• A diminished T-cell count implies a diminished ability to fight off attacking pathogens.
• The clients who have the most trouble fighting off infection are those with AIDS and those undergoing chemotherapy.

Question 34

What causes heartburn?

Answer 34

• If the LES does not close adequately, the stomach contents can reenter the esophagus, causing a severe burning sensation, heartburn or acid reflux, due to the acidic stomach contents.
• Untreated, this gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) can lead to esophageal or gastric (stomach) ulcers and, in more serious cases, bleeding, stricture, or precancerous conditions.
• GERD may be successfully treated with medications and lifestyle changes (including weight loss and smoking cessation).