Final - November 26 - On the path to Independence? Spanish America after the French Revolution

Question 1

Ready for Revolution? The American, French, and Haitian Revolutions from Spanish American Perspective (full slide)

Answer 1

The American Revolution (1775-1783) : Spain (alongside the French and the Dutch) had supported the Patriot militia during the American Revolutionary War as a way to weaken England, but not in support of the American Revolution political Ideas – In Spanish America, few fully comprehended or supported the Republican ideals
The French Revolution (1789-1799): Support for Republicanism descended even further after the death of King Louis XVI – Spain briefly declared war on France – French Republican Ideals became better known among the criollos, but many of them were wary of violence – They especially opposed the separation of Church and State
The Haitian Revolution ((1791-1804): It was seen as a cautionary tale of the risks of Revolution by the white Spanish American elite (especially in Peru and the Spanish Caribbean) – Fear of indigenous and slaves uprisings if the political stability deteriorated

Question 2

explain the american revolution

Answer 2

(1775-1783) : Spain (alongside the French and the Dutch) had supported the Patriot militia during the American Revolutionary War as a way to weaken England, but not in support of the American Revolution political Ideas – In Spanish America, few fully comprehended or supported the Republican ideals

Question 3

explain The French Revolution (1789-1799):

Answer 3

Support for Republicanism descended even further after the death of King Louis XVI – Spain briefly declared war on France – French Republican Ideals became better known among the criollos, but many of them were wary of violence – They especially opposed the separation of Church and State

Question 4

explain The Haitian Revolution ((1791-1804):

Answer 4

It was seen as a cautionary tale of the risks of Revolution by the white Spanish American elite (especially in Peru and the Spanish Caribbean) – Fear of indigenous and slaves uprisings if the political stability deteriorated

Question 5

The (inevitable?) collapse of the Spanish Empire (full slide)

Answer 5

Whether the collapse of the empire was inevitable has long been a matter of historical debate. This debate is framed by two facts:

1. The Spanish Empire had already survived a legitimacy crisis in the early 1700: The War of Spanish Succession
2. There were no major systemic risks to the Spanish hegemony before the battle of Trafalgar (this battle did cripple the Spanish navy and its ability to project power in the Americas) and the Napoleonic invasion (legitimacy crisis)
3. Support for independence was low among the criollo and mestizo population before 1800. The idea of revolution, independence and republicanism was not part of mainstream political thought in Spanish America before 1800. Many of its most ardent defenders were in fact Spanish American criollos living outside Latin America. However, there was an increasing perception in the ruling elite that they had been deprived of a substantial share of the benefits of the Bourbon Reforms and of influence in the political life of the viceroyalties.
4. There were few structures of self-government that could articulate a future state
5. There were fear to losing the control of the indigenous, black population and castas – The precedents of the Haitian Revolution and the Tupac Amaru Rebellion scared many
6. Important parts of the Spanish empire remained under Spanish control (Peru until 1824 and Cuba and the Philippines until 1898)

So what happened?

Question 6

A Crisis of Legitimacy: The French Invasion and the Independence of Spanish America (full slide)

Answer 6

Invasion: French Troops invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 1808 following the abdication of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII
Resistance: Following the example of other towns in the Iberian Peninsula, the Spanish colonies refused (1) to acknowledge José Bonaparte as King and (2) to recognize the authority of the Spanish administration while under French rule
Legitimacy: Critically, the Spanish colonies also refused to recognize the political legitimacy of the Spanish Junta Central, charged with coordinating the resistance to the French invasion, and its attempts to convene the General Cortes (parliament) to draft a Constitution for Spain and the Empire in 1812
Autonomy: Instead the Spanish colonies created their own Juntas which recognized only the authority of King Ferdinand VII while declaring themselves autonomous until Ferdinand VII was reinstated in the throne of Spain. However, they also sent representatives to the General Cortes to defend their interests in the drafting of the liberal Cadiz Constitution of 1812.
Radicalization: Some members of those Juntas quickly radicalized and moved towards independence. The criollo elite broke up in two: those who favor independence and those who favor the union with Spain.
Why did those who favored independence win?

Question 7

A Crisis of Legitimacy: The French Invasion and the Independence of Spanish America explain the invasion

Answer 7

Invasion: French Troops invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 1808 following the abdication of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII

Question 8

A Crisis of Legitimacy: The French Invasion and the Independence of Spanish America explain the resistance

Answer 8

Resistance: Following the example of other towns in the Iberian Peninsula, the Spanish colonies refused (1) to acknowledge José Bonaparte as King and (2) to recognize the authority of the Spanish administration while under French rule

Question 9

A Crisis of Legitimacy: The French Invasion and the Independence of Spanish America explain the legitimacy

Answer 9

Legitimacy: Critically, the Spanish colonies also refused to recognize the political legitimacy of the Spanish Junta Central, charged with coordinating the resistance to the French invasion, and its attempts to convene the General Cortes (parliament) to draft a Constitution for Spain and the Empire in 1812

Question 10

A Crisis of Legitimacy: The French Invasion and the Independence of Spanish America explain the autonomy

Answer 10

Autonomy: Instead the Spanish colonies created their own Juntas which recognized only the authority of King Ferdinand VII while declaring themselves autonomous until Ferdinand VII was reinstated in the throne of Spain. However, they also sent representatives to the General Cortes to defend their interests in the drafting of the liberal Cadiz Constitution of 1812.

Question 11

A Crisis of Legitimacy: The French Invasion and the Independence of Spanish America explain the radicalization

Answer 11

Radicalization: Some members of those Juntas quickly radicalized and moved towards independence. The criollo elite broke up in two: those who favor independence and those who favor the union with Spain.

Question 12

The triumph of the Independence movement (I) (full slide)

Answer 12

The triumph of those who favored independence was by no means certain. Why did they win at the end? Four main reasons:
Reason 1: The Breakup of the Loyalist Elite
Military Situation: Those who supported the continuation of the empire lacked naval and military support from Spain following the defeat of Trafalgar and the fact that the Spanish army was fighting the French in the Iberian Peninsula. Spain was only able to send an expeditionary force some years after Ferdinand VII returned to the throne in 1813.
New Political Framework: A liberal constitution (the first in the history of Spain) was approved by the Spanish Parliament (Cortes) in 1812.
Critically, those who favored the union with Spain were divided between those who favor the liberal arrangements of the Cádiz constitution of 1812 and the reform of the empire and those who supported a return to absolutist rule and rejected the liberal reforms.
The alienation of the liberal loyalists: The abolition of the Cadiz Constitution and the return of absolutism in 1814 pushed many moderate Spanish Americans to join those who favored independence.
The alienation of the conservative loyalists: To make things worse, the reintroduction of the Cadiz Constitution and the return of liberalism in 1820 alienated the most conservative sectors of the elite (especially in Mexico), who changed their allegiance to the pro-independence movement.

Question 13

The triumph of those who favored independence was by no means certain. Why did they win at the end? Four main reasons

Answer 13

Reason 1: The Breakup of the Loyalist Elite

REASON 2. The ambivalent role of the Catholic Church

REASON 3. THE (BROKEN) PROMISE OF A NEW SOCIAL PACT

Reason IV. The Calamitous Political, Social, and Economic State of Spain after the French Invasion

Question 14

explain Reason 1: The Breakup of the Loyalist Elite

Answer 14

Military Situation: Those who supported the continuation of the empire lacked naval and military support from Spain following the defeat of Trafalgar and the fact that the Spanish army was fighting the French in the Iberian Peninsula. Spain was only able to send an expeditionary force some years after Ferdinand VII returned to the throne in 1813.
New Political Framework: A liberal constitution (the first in the history of Spain) was approved by the Spanish Parliament (Cortes) in 1812.
Critically, those who favored the union with Spain were divided between those who favor the liberal arrangements of the Cádiz constitution of 1812 and the reform of the empire and those who supported a return to absolutist rule and rejected the liberal reforms.
The alienation of the liberal loyalists: The abolition of the Cadiz Constitution and the return of absolutism in 1814 pushed many moderate Spanish Americans to join those who favored independence.
The alienation of the conservative loyalists: To make things worse, the reintroduction of the Cadiz Constitution and the return of liberalism in 1820 alienated the most conservative sectors of the elite (especially in Mexico), who changed their allegiance to the pro-independence movement.

Question 15

explain REASON 2. The ambivalent role of the Catholic Church

Answer 15

The position of the Church Hierarchy: High-ranking members of the Church often sided with those wo defended the interests of Ferdinand VII, but not with those who supported the liberal-minded Cádiz Constitution.
The Position of the local Church: Low- and mid-ranking members of the Church often sided with the rebels due to
1. their disgust with the religious policies of the Bourbon Kings,
2. their links to the criollo elite and middle classes who had not benefitted from the Bourbon Reforms, and
3. their animosity against a Church hierarchy chosen in Spain.
The position of the local church (low and mid-ranking members of the Church was key in the ideological battle for independence. They helped legitimize the independence movement and served as intermediaries between the criollo elite at the forefront of the independence movement and the rest of colonial society.
A change of heart? The return to liberalism in Spain in 1820 and the problems to continue the war effort by an impoverished Spain, led the colonial Church hierarchies and the Vatican to increasingly switch their allegiance to the new Spanish American Republics in order to try to guarantee the position of the Catholic Church in the new countries.

Question 16

explain REASON 3. THE (BROKEN) PROMISE OF A NEW SOCIAL PACT

Answer 16

The movements and wars of independence in Spanish America were led by the criollos (American-born Spaniards). With the exception of Cuba, the section of the criollo elite who favored independence was able to establish a broad alliance with
1. the low and mid-ranking members of the Church (start of the long-lasting alliance between the Catholic Church and the conservative elites of the new Latin American Republics)
2. A significant part of the mestizo population who were promised citizenship rights and improved living conditions (only partially achieved after independence)
3. some sectors of the Black population (through the promise of freedom and the end of slavery) (only partially achieved after independence)
4. some sectors of the indigenous population who opposed Spanish rule.
Black and indigenous distrust towards these promises explain why the participation of these sectors of the population was not more widespread. In fact, some of them joined the loyalist side out of distrust to the criollo elites

Question 17

explain Reason IV. The Calamitous Political, Social, and Economic State of Spain after the French Invasion

Answer 17

Political instability: The Return of Ferdinand VII in 1813 and his negative to accept the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 was deeply resented and began a period of political intrigue.
A Weakened Economy and Army: Spain was in ruins after the war against Napoleón – It had lost most of its industrial capacity – Its navy was in tatters It had suffered around 215,000 to 375,000 military casualties and a demographic loss of between 560,000 to 885,000 out of an estimated population of 10 million)
Conscription: As a result, the armies of the King fighting against the Americas were made of conscripted soldiers – This was deeply resented by ample sectors of the population that had suffered the most during the conflict with the French.
Revolt: A military revolt between 1820 and 1823 started by conscripted soldiers and their officers forced Ferdinand VII to accept the Cadiz Constitution and the principles of a liberal state – A new French Invasion (this time in support of Ferdinand VII and the Absolutist Restoration in Europe) followed – Civil war erupted in Spain further hindering the attempt to control the colonies
Independence: While the Spanish Armies have the upperhand between 1814 and 1817, most Latin American nations were able to declare their independence in the period between 1818 and 1826 – Spain will retain control over Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and over the Philippines in Asia