final exam Flashcards
what is Scientia?
Scientia refers to comprehension, understanding, and objective knowledge
what is sapientia
sapientia refers to wisdom, subjective understanding of how things operate and decision making.
what are some differences between objective and subjective knowledge
objective means its a type of knowledge that can be agreed upon by everyone, regardless of background or context.
subjective refers to knowledge related to the perspective of the individual experiences and in respect to surroundings. (using adjectives instead of numbers)
what is the modeling relation
The modeling relation is based on the universally accepted belief that the world has some sort of order associated with it. It depicts the process of assigning interpretations to events in the world in a diagrammatic form. (ie. how we interpreted existence vs how it actually is)( we will never know)
what is the scientific method
an orderly process of asking questions about the natural world and attempting to answer these questions through experimentation and date collection.
how is science objective
science attempts to describe, explain and understand the world in terms that are quantitative and empirical and that can be agreed upon.
what are the characteristics of life?
complex organization
energy processing
response to stimuli
regulation
growth, development,
evolutionary adaption
what is mechanism
the idea that living things are just highly complex machines and the separation between us and machines is our limited understanding.
what is vitalism
the idea that the origin of life is dependent on a force or principle distinct from purely physical or chemical properties.
the idea that for something to be alive it must have/are governed by a life force/soul/spirit/elan vital.
what are emergent properties
properties that arise from the interaction of multiple components within a system, but are not properties of the individual components themselves
what are the levels of complex organization
biosphere-ecosystem-community-population-organism-organs-tissue-cell-organelle-molecule.
what are the three domains?
Archaea, Eukarya, Bacteria
what are the characteristics of bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic ,prokaryotic, single celled organism, cell was is made of PGN, they are most abundant life on earth, some cause disease.
what are the characteristics of the domain archaea
microscopic, prokaryotic, single cell organisms, lives in extreme environments, they do not cause disease or illness.
what are the characteristics of the domain Eukarya
most are macroscopic, some microscopic, Eukaryotic, can be single or multicellular, four kingdom’s make up this domain.
what does prokaryotic mean?
what are some examples of prokaryotes?
a prokaryote is any organism that lacks a distinct nucleus and other organelles due to absence of internal membranes.
Bacteria are prokaryotic organisms.
what are some differences between archaea and bacteria
Bacteria can cause illnesses, Archaean’s do not.
bacteria cells walls have peptidoglycan, Archaean cell walls do not.
Archaean cell walls do not. Bacteria engage in both glycolysis and the Calvin cycle; archaea do not
what does eukaryotic mean
eukaryotic refers to an organism that has a clearly defined nucleus surrounded by a membrane
eukaryotic refers to an organism that has a clearly defined nucleus surrounded by a membrane
the 5 kingdoms system holds Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Monera.
the 6 kingdom system splits Monera into 2 groups; Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. the other 4 remain the same.
what are some characteristics of the kingdom Animalia
Multicellular, eukaryotic organisms without cell walls, heterotrophic (consume other organisms for food), capable of movement, including animals like humans and insects
what are some characteristics of the kingdom Plantae
Multicellular, eukaryotic organisms with cellulose cell walls, autotrophic (photosynthesize to produce their own food), reproduction is both asexual and sexual, including plants like trees and flowers
what are some characteristics of the kingdom Fungi
Eukaryotic, multicellular organisms with cell walls made of mainly chitin, heterotrophic (feed on decaying organic matter), spore reproduction, non-vascular including mushrooms and molds
what are some characteristics of the kingdom Protista
Unicellular, prokaryotic organisms (lacking a nucleus), asexual or binary fission reproduction, peptidoglycan cell wall, multiple modes of nutrition, including bacteria; most are microscopic and can live in diverse environments.
are viruses living or non-living? Why or Why not?
viruses are considered non-living.
without a host cell a virus cant replicate. they also don’t need to consume any form of energy, and it cannot regulate its own temperature. It is only a shell of protein and DNA that can survive indefinitely until it comes in contact with other cells.
what is binomial classification
binomial classification refers to a system of naming living organisms where each species is given a two-part scientific name, with the first part identifying the genus and the second part specifying the species itself. i.e. Homo Sapiens
what is the scientific name for modern humans
Homo Sapien
(binomial classification)
what are hydrocarbon skeletons
the spine of the molecule that consists of carbons with hydrogens attached. most biomolecules (organic) has this. they are also non-polar
why are hydrocarbons generally hydrophobic and non-polar
hydrocarbons are generally non-polar due the little electronegative difference between carbons and hydrogens. there is so little movement of electrons that hydrocarbons are inert compared to other functional groups.
what chemical feature do hydrocarbons share
they are biomolecules with carbons spines with hydrogens attached (hydrocarbon skeleton)
how many functional groups are there? what are the primary groups
there are over 100 different functional groups. the primary are Hydroxyl, Sulfhydryl, Carboxyl, Amino, Phosphate
what are polymers and monomers
Polymers are large molecules made up of smaller molecules called monomers that are linked together in chains or networks.
what are some examples of polymers and their subunits (monomers)
carbohydrates-saccharides
proteins-amino acids
lipids-fatty acids
nucleic acids-nucleotides
what is dehydration synthesis
dehydration synthesis is a reaction in which polymers are assembled from subunit molecules.
the OH on one end of a monomer combines with the H on another end to make water and allows both ends to bond.
what is hydrolysis
a process by which polymers are disassembled into subunit molecules (monomers).
water breaks a bond and OH goes to one end of the new subunit and H on the other subunit end,
what is an example of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis
synthesis- formation of disaccharides from monosaccharides in carbohydrates.
Hydrolysis- the dissolving of sugar into its components glucose and fructose
what are carbohydrates? what are their characteristics
-carbohydrates are longs chains (polymers) of saccharides (sugar).
-they provide short term energy storage in the form of glycogen and starch
-they provide structure in the form of chitin and cellulose
-cell recognition for blood types
what is the molecular structure of glucose
glucose has a molecular formula of C6H12O6 and forms in a hexagonal shape with the IUPAC systematic name (3R,4S,5S,6R)-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-2,3,4,5-tetrol
what are the differences and similarities in starch and cellulose.
starch is primarily used for energy storage, cellulose is used for structure and support. both polysaccharides found in plants.
what are some differences and similarities between chitin and glycogen
glycogen is a storage food of animals, chitin serves as a structural component in fungi, arthropods and insects.
what are proteins? what are some characteristics
proteins are polymers of amino acids (there are 20 different kinds).
proteins can provide structure through collagen (cartilage), mobility through myosin (muscle), enzymes like lactase, regulate hormones through insulin (blood sugar regulation), membrane transport, immunity through antibodies, and long term energy.
what is the general structure of an amino acid
an amino acid consists of an amino group, a carboxyl group and and a vertical R-C-H chain in the middle.
the side chain determines the type of amino acid.
how many naturally occurring amino acids are found in proteins
there are 20 naturally occurring amino acids
what is the importance of the protein shape
he shape of the protein directly determines its function, allowing it to interact with with specific molecules within the cell based on its unique 3d structure. for example, if any enzymes proteins change shape, it can no longer function.
what are the levels of protein organization
primary (sequence of a chain of amino acids), secondary (folding of the chain into helices or sheets), tertiary (3d folding of other shapes into a jumble), quaternary (even more so)
what is denaturation?
denaturation is the reprocess of breaking down, unfolding of a proteins structure. this generally leaves the molecule non-functional.
what are lipids
lipids are fatty, waxy or oily compounds that are soluble in organic solvents.
what are some characteristics of lipids
long-term energy storage (9kcal/g), insulation (fat, thermal, physical, electrical), membrane structure (phospholipids), hormones (estrogen and testosterone)
what is the basic structure of a fatty acids
generally a fatty acid consists of a straight chain of an even number of carbon with hydrogen atoms along the length and at one end with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at the other end.
What’s the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, while unsaturated fatty acids have at least one double bond.
what is triglyceride
triglycerides are the most common type of fat in the body. They are found in blood.
how do triglycerides form? what is the general structure of a triglyceride
triglycerides consist of three fatty acid chains linked by the molecule glycerol.
When you consume food, enzymes in your gut break down fats into their component fatty acids, which are then reassembled into triglyceride particles.
what is the structure of a phospholipid
phospholipids consist of a glycerol molecule, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group modified by an alchohol.
the fatty acids chains are uncharged and non-polar. the heads are are polar and hydrophilic.
what are sterols
a group of fat-like substances that are found in plants and animals, and are essential components of eukaryotic cell membranes
what is the composition of cytoplasm
cytoplasm is primarily composed of water, salts, various organic molecules like enzymes
what are ribosomes
a ribosome is an intercellular structure made of RNA and protein, it is the site of protein synthesis in the cell.
what is the endoplasmic reticulum
the ER is a network of folded sacks and tubes in the cytoplasm and can be smooth or rough
what is the difference between smooth and rough ER
rough ER has has many ribosomes on its outer surface and makes proteins the cell needs. smooth ER makes other substances like lipids and carbohydrates and has a smooth surface.
what is the Golgi apparatus
the Golgi apparatus is an organelle that processes and packages proteins and lipids for inside and outside the sell
what are lysosomes? what do they do
lysosome is a membrane-bound organelle that contains digestive enzymes.
the lysosome functions almost as an opposite than ribosomes. one breaks down, one synthesizes.
what are mitochondria? what do they do
mitochondria are organelles that produce most of the energy that
the cells use to function.
the chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
what are some characteristics of chloroplasts
chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells. It contains high amounts of the green pigment, chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are the organelle responsible for photosynthesis.
what are vacuoles? how do vacuoles in plant and animal cells differ.
vacuoles are membrane bound organelles founding plants and animals.
In plants, vacuoles can take up most of the space in the cell, and water may be a waste material, so in planta it regulates water.
In animals they function closer to lysosomes because they break down, store and regulate waste.
what is the cytoskeleton
the cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that provide structure and maintain the shape of cells. It also enables the cell to move in response to stimuli.
what are cilia, flagella, and pseudopods
tiny hair-like structures that protrude from the surface of cells. they the cell move, sense the environment.
a hair-like structure which functions as a whip that allows a cell to move.
pseudopods are closer to false feet. they also provide movement, and the capture of prey.
what are three principles of cells theory
-cells are the smallest units of life
-all living things are made up of cells
-all cells come from pre-existing cells.
who was the first to see living cells?
Anton von Leeuwenhoek
what are some characteristic of Eukaryotic cells
microscopic. highly compartmentalized, nucleus. much more active and complex functions (metabolism, regulation etc.) they have a nucleus, plants and some fungi have cell walls
what are some differences between plant and animal cells
plants cells have cells wall, and chloroplasts (photosynthesis).
what are the main components of a bacterial cell wall
bacterial cell walls are primarily made of peptidoglycan
what are characteristics of prokaryotic cells
-no nucleus
-no mitochondria
no Golgi bodies
-no chloroplasts
-no lysosomes
-they have a cell wall
what are organelles
an organelle is a subcellular that preforms one or more specific functions within a cell, similar to how our own organs function in our body.
what is a nuclear envelope
a nuclear envelope is a double membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, separating the nuclear contents from the cytoplasm and acting as a barrier that regulates the movement of molecules.
what is the composition of cytoplasm
cytoplasm is primarily composed of water, salts, various organic molecules like enzymes.
what are ribosomes
a ribosome is an intercellular structure made of RNA and protein, it is the site of protein synthesis in the cell.
what is the endoplasmic reticulum
the ER is a network of folded sacks and tubes in the cytoplasm and can be smooth or rough.
what is the difference between smooth and rough ER
rough ER has has many ribosomes on its outer surface and makes proteins the cell needs. smooth ER makes other substances like lipids and carbohydrates and has a smooth surface.
what is the Golgi apparatus
the Golgi apparatus is an organelle that processes and packages proteins and lipids for inside and outside the sell
what are lysosomes? what do they do
lysosome is a membrane-bound organelle that contains digestive enzymes.
the lysosome functions almost as an opposite than ribosomes. one breaks down, one synthesizes.
what are mitochondria? what do they do
mitochondria are organelles that produce most of the energy that
the cells use to function.
the chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
what are some characteristics of chloroplasts
chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells. It contains high amounts of the green pigment, chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are the organelle responsible for photosynthesis.
what are vacuoles? how do vacuoles in plant and animal cells differ.
vacuoles are membrane bound organelles founding plants and animals.
In plants, vacuoles can take up most of the space in the cell, and water may be a waste material, so in planta it regulates water.
In animals they function closer to lysosomes because they break down, store and regulate waste.
what is the cytoskeleton
the cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers that provide structure and maintain the shape of cells. It also enables the cell to move in response to stimuli.
what are cilia, flagella, and pseudopods
tiny hair-like structures that protrude from the surface of cells. they the cell move, sense the environment.
a hair-like structure which functions as a whip that allows a cell to move.
pseudopods are closer to false feet. they also provide movement, and the capture of prey.
what are membranes
thin layers of either lipids and proteins, or tissues that help protect inner contents or regulate the exchange of particles through diffusion and osmosis
what is the fluid mosaic model
the fluid mosaic model is a scientific model that shows the structure and function of cell membranes. It shows a “mosaic” of each of the cell membranes features.
why are phospholipids able to form membranes
because of their composition and structure, they are have both polar and non-polar features. Because of their tails being non-polar, or hydrophobic they arrange themselves as to where their tails are apart of the inner membrane, protected from water.
which transport mechanisms are passive and active?
passive transports include simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
Active transport include sodium-potassium pump, endocytosis and exocytosis.
what is the biological significance of food
food is one of the basic necessities of life. it contains the nutrients we need to grow, repair, maintenance and regulate all of our biological processes.
what are dissipative structures? what are some examples?
dissipative structures are formed and maintained by a continuous flow of energy and material.
dissipative systems characteristic features only emerge spontaneously in the presence of a flux of energy.
what is the definition of energy ?
the ability to preform work or cause change within a living organism.
the ability to move mass a distance, the capacity to do work, and chemical reactions.
what is kinetic energy? what are some examples?
energy of motion.
heat, light, electricity, movement.
what is potential energy? what are some examples?
the energy of position, the energy stored in a stationary object with the potential to become kinetic.
compressed spring, rock on cliff, chemical bonds.
what are the 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics?
1: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted without 100% efficiency.
2: Entropy of the universe is always increasing.
what is ∆G?
Gibbs free energy. ∆G combines ∆S and ∆H into a single value, and predicts the direction of equilibrium and reaction spontaneity. (this only works under constant conditions)
what is metabolism? what are the types of reactions involved?
the sum of all biochemical reactions in a cell.
they can be either anabolic or catabolic reactions.
what is the difference between catabolic and anabolic reactions?
Catabolic are decomposition reactions and are exergonic.
Anabolic are synthesis reactions and are endergonic.
what is the difference between ender and exergonic reactions?
exergonic (exothermic) reactions release energy, and endergonic (endothermic) require energy.
what is the importance of Gibbs free energy?
Gibbs free energy is important because it allows us to determine if a reaction will happen. this is helpful because it can be used to predict how much energy is released.
what is the ∆G difference in exo and endergonic reactions?
-∆G is a release of energy, exergonic.
+ ∆G is an absorption of energy, endergonic.
what are spontaneous reactions?
a reaction that proceeds without external influence or the addition of energy.
the Eq is right leaning and it will happen on its own.
what is energy coupling
an open system that never reaches equilibrium due to constant dissipation of energy and raw materials. (energy released from an exergonic process is used to fuel an endergonic process)
what does ATP stand for?
Adenosine Triphosphate
how does ATP make energy coupling more efficient?
the more efficient the ATP transfer, the less energy is needed overall for continuing reactions
what is activation energy?
activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required for a specific reaction to take place.
how does activation energy relate to the rate/speed of the reaction?
activation energy is inverse relationship to the rate/speed of the reaction
how do enzymes catalyze reactions?
enzymes catalyze reactions by binding substrates to the active sites.
each type of enzyme catalyzes different reactions. this is due to unique active sites specifically shaped for certain substrates.
what is a substrate, active site and product?
the substrate for an enzyme are the reactant molecules that lock into the active site. the product is what is formed after this happens.
how is enzyme activity affected by temperature and pH?
since enzymes are proteins, any denaturation will affect the shape of its active site, affecting its function.
how can a cell regulate the activity of its enzymes?
negative feedback inhibition, through allosteric sites.
what is negative feedback inhibition? how does it work in enzymes?
in enzymes the product of one enzyme binds to the allosteric site, which changes the shape of the active site. once the active site is changed the substrate can no longer bind, stopping production. (product stops production)
what is the relationship between photosynthesis and aerobic respiration?
the product of one, is the reactant of another. the two reactions are inverse
what is the overall reaction of aerobic respiration?
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 +6H2O + ATP.
what are the 4 steps of aerobic cellular respiration
glycolysis (present in all organisms)(cytoplasm), transition reaction (matrix), citric acid cycle (matrix), electron transport (inner membrane)
what occurs during the redox reaction?
redox is electron transfer. one side loses electrons (oxidation) one side gains electrons (reduction)
how many ATP are produced during aerobic cellular respiration?
36ATP
what is the process of glycolysis? what are the starting and ending materials?
hydrogen atoms are removed from glucose and transferred to the electron transport carrier NAD+ forming NADH.
glycolysis has two phases and produces two pyruvate, 4ATP (it uses up 2), 2 NADH.
what are electron carriers? what is an example?
electron carriers are molecules that act as shuttles that move electrons during metabolic processes.
example NAD+ carrying hydrogens becoming NADH
what occurs during the transition reaction? what are the starting and ending materials?
the reaction converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA by losing a carbon, producing carbon dioxide and NADH. no ATP is created.
what is citric acid cycle? what are the starting and ending materials?
acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to produce energy-rich molecules like NADH, FADH2, and ATP, releasing carbon dioxide as a waste product
what is electron transfer chain reaction? what are the starting and ending materials?
6 NADH, 6O2, and ends with 36-38 ATP and 4H2O and oxygen is the final electron acceptor.
what role does oxygen serve in the ETC?
oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the chain to form water.
what is ATP synthase? where is it located?
ATP synthase is an enzyme that synthesizes ATP from ADP.
it sits on the membrane, and the flow of protons rotates the rotary motor allowing it to synthesize products.
How many ATP are produced by the ETC
32ATP
how do aerobic and anaerobic metabolism’s differ?
aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces a significantly larger amount of energy compared to anerobic respiration. there is also one type of aerobic respiration.
anaerobic respiration has multiple different types (like fermentation) and does not require oxygen.
what is fermentation?
fermentation is the breakdown of a substance by bacteria, fungi (yeast), microorganisms in which sugars are converted into ethyl alcohol.
what are the waste products of anaerobic metabolism?
in animals: lactic acid
in most microorganisms: ethanol and carbon dioxide.
what are autotrophs and heterotrophs?
autotrophs produce their own food. heterotrophs must get their food from other organism.
what is the overall reaction of photosynthesis?
the overall reaction is opposite of cellular respiration. 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2
what wavelength is important for photosynthesis?
the most important wavelengths are red (600-700) and blue (400-500) because they are the most effectively absorbed. green is the least absorbed.
what are the light and dark reactions?
the light reactions take place in the thylakoid. they convert sunlight into ATP and NADH and split H2O and release O2 into the air.
dark reactions occur in the stroma that use ATP and NADH to convert CO2 into the sugar G3P. it also returns ADP and NADP to the light reactions to cycle.
light reactions make oxygen, dark reactions make food.
what does ps-2 do?
light energy enters and excites chlorophyl which release electrons. the electrons are then passed to acceptors through an ETC to the next ps. H2O then splits into protons and releases O2, the electrons from the protons replace the lost electron.
what occurs in ps-1?
the chlorophylls are energized by sunlight energy, causing the loss of an electron, which is replaced by the electron lost in ps-2.
what is direct signaling?
direct signaling is cell-to-cell, and occurs when cells are in direct contact to each other.
what is local signaling?
local signaling is paracrine and synaptic signaling. it occurs when cells release ligands (messengers) that diffuse through the extracellular matrix to communicate with other cells. these signals are short.
what is long distance signaling?
long distance cell signals travels distances across the entire body to a specific target, this often includes signals in the nervous system.
what are the three steps of cell signaling?
reception (detecting the signal molecule/ligand), transduction (converting signal through cell), response (cell carries out appropriate action)
what occurs during reception?
a ligand (first messenger) binds to a specific protein (receptor) on the cell membrane or inside the cell.
what occurs during transduction?
once ligand binds and activates the receptor, a series of relay molecules are activated one after the other. this often involves phosphorylation, or enzymes (cyclicAMP) to catalyze the process
how do prokaryotic cells reproduce?
they reproduce through a type of cell division called binary fission.
what is mitosis?
mitosis is a type of cell division when a mother cells splits into two daughter cells which are genetically identical.
what’s the difference between mitosis and binary fission?
binary fission is a simpler process that occurs in prokaryote while mitosis is more complex and happens in eukaryotes.
what is chromatin?
chromatin is the strings of proteins and DNA that make up a chromosome
what is a chromatid?
a chromatic is half of a chromosome.
how many chromosomes are in a normal human cell?
46
what are spindle fibers?
what are spindle fibers?
what is interphase?
normal cell activity
what occurs during prophase?
its the second stage of mitosis. spindle fibers form. the chromatin in the nucleus condenses into chromosomes.
what occurs during prometaphase
its the third step. the nuclear envelope dissolves. the spindle microtubules move and attach to the chromosomes kinetochore to move them to separate sides of the cell.
what occurs during metaphase.
this is the fourth step. the spindle microtubules arrange the chromosomes at the equator of the cell.
what occurs during anaphase
this is the fifth step. the chromosomes are split into sister chromatids and are move to opposite side of the cells.
what occurs during telophase
this is the sixth step. a new nuclear envelope forms around the sister chromatids and cleavage furrow forms.
what is cytokinesis
this is the final step in mitosis. the splits into two.
what are the stages of a cell cycle?
G1, S , G2, Mitosis
(gap 1, synthesis, gap 2, mitosis)
what occurs during each phase in a cell cycle?
gap 1-normal cell activity
S-chromosome replication
gap 2-preperation for mitosis
M-mitosis begins
which stages constitute interphase?
G1, S and G2
what triggers a cell to move to the next stage of its life cycle? how does it work?
the protein CDK (cyclin dependent kinases) which binds to cycling which acts as a signal.
what is cyclin?
cyclins are proteins that regulate the cell cycle by binding and activating CDKs.
what are cyclin dependent kinases?
CDKs are a family of enzymes that regulate cell division in eukaryotic cells. they require a cyclin protein to be activated.
what are proto-oncogenes? what is a tumor suppressor gene?
proto-oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes both regulate cell division. proto-oncogenes turn on cell division (ex. cyclin), tumor suppressant genes turn off cell division (ex. p53). both encode proteins.
what is P53? what is its importance?
the P53 gene regulates cell division and manages damaged and mutated DNA. when this protein is mutated or damaged, the cell has no way to stop cell division, leading to the development of tumors.
what are HeLa cells?
cancer cells. HeLa cells where the first human cell line that could grow and divide endlessly in a laboratory. this significantly contributed to cancer research.
when is mitosis used by cells?
mitosis is used for growth development and repair.
what are homologous chromosomes?
a pair of chromosomes where one is from the mother and one from the father
what does diploid and haploid mean?
what does diploid and haploid mean?
what is meiosis?
cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms.
what occurs during meiosis 1 & 2
1-homologous pairs are separated, then in 2 sister chromatids are separated.
how many cells result from meiosis?
4 daughter cells
what was the blending theory of inheritance
the outdated theory that offspring inherit traits as a simple mix of their parents traits.
who was Gregor Mendel?
an Austrian monk credited as the father of genetics. he proposed a ‘particle’ theory of inheritance
what is P-generation, f1-generation and F2-generation?
P-generation= parent generation
F1-generation= 1st generation
F2-generation= 1st generation crossed with itself.
what does dominant and recessive refer to?
recessive and dominant alleles.
what is Mendel’s Law of Segregation?
-an organism possesses two factors (alleles) for each trait.
-during gamete formation these factors segregate, such that a gamete possesses one factor for each trait.
-Fertilization restores the presence of two factors for each trait in the offspring
– Some factors are ‘dominant’ and mask the effect of ‘recessive’ factors
what does phenotype mean?
the type of trait as a result of genotype. ex. tall, short etc.
what does genotype mean
refers to the combination to the combination of factors (types of genes)
what important functions must DNA perform?
DNA must copy itself with great fidelity and encode genetic information.
how did Watson and Crick discover the structure of DNA
with the x-ray image made by Rosalind Franklin, known as photo 51.
what was Rosalind franklins contribution?
she was able to crystalize DNA and x-ray it to photograph DNA.
what is the structure of DNA
a double helix nucleotide with 4 nitrogenous bases, Thymine (T) Adenine(A) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)
what are nucleotides?
phosphate sugars with hydrogen bonds connecting them to nitrogenous bases.
what does ligase do?
it binds the Okazaki fragments together on the lagging strand.
what does DNA polymerase do?
Polymerase goes on two one of the branches of the replication fork and copies and makes a new strand of DNA.
