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General Biology 1 > Biotechnology and gene regulation > Flashcards

Biotechnology and gene regulation Flashcards

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1
Q

what is meant by horizontal gene transfer?

A

genetic passing of information within the same generation

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2
Q

what are plasmids?

A

a small loop of DNA in a bacteria separate from the chromosomes that allow horizontal gene transfer.

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3
Q

how do restriction enzymes work? what are sticky ends?

A

enzymes that cut DNA in a very specific region. sticky ends are the ends of DNA after being cut

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4
Q

who created the first recombinant DNA molecule.

A

Paul Berg

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5
Q

what roles are played by restriction enzymes and ligase?

A

restriction enzymes make edits in a specific areas of DNA and ligase binds the sticky ends together. molecular scissors and glue.

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6
Q

what was the first protein produced by genetic engineering?

A

Human Insulin

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7
Q

what is PCR and who discovered it

A

PCr is polymerase chain reaction, a lab technique that amplifies or copies specific segments of DNA. invented by Kary Mullis.

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8
Q

what is CRISPR?

A

a natural bacterial immune system that can be used to edit DNA, and can be programed to edit very specific regions of DNA.

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9
Q

who discovered and first used crispr?

A

Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier

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10
Q

what is cas9? what is guide RNA?

A

cas9 is a protein that cuts the DNA, gRNA is a short sequence that directs the cas9 to the correct spot to cut, acting as a targeting mechanism.

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11
Q

what HDR?

A

homology-directed repair. Its a DNA repair mechanism that uses a template to fix double strand breaks in DNA.

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12
Q

what are some biomedical examples of CRISPR application?

A

crispr is used in some cases sickle cell disease, and it could potentially be used to treat cancers, blindness, cystic fibrosis and more.

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13
Q

what is the current US policy on editing human embryos

A

Germline gene editing is banned in the United States by acts of Congress although there is no federal legislation that dictates protocols or restrictions regarding human genetic engineering.

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14
Q

what are genomics and proteomics?

A

genomics is the complete the study of complete set of DNA or genome. proteomics is the study of proteins.

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15
Q

what is the human genome project?

A

the human genome project was an international scientific research project that mapped the sequence the human genome for the first time.

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16
Q

who led the sequencing effort in the human genome project?

A

Francis Collins and Craig Venter.

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17
Q

what significant insights came from the human genome project?

A

the HGP revealed that humans have around 22,000 genes, identifying genetic variations linked to diseases.

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18
Q

How is gene expression regulated in prokaryotic cells?

A

it is regulated through the transcription process

19
Q

how do operons work?

A

each operon has regulatory DNA sequences, which act as binding sites for proteins to promote or inhibit transcription.

20
Q

how is gene expression regulated in prokaryotic cells?

A

gene expression is controlled by what portions of the RNA will be transcribed and expressed.

21
Q

what are operons?

A

groups of genes that are transcribed together to create a single RNA molecule.

22
Q

how do operons work?

A

operons are groups of genes in prokaryotic organisms. they are regulated by a promoter that binds to the correct region to transcribe it. the expression is controlled by the operator, which can be turned on or off.

23
Q

how is gene expression regulated in eukaryotic cells?

A

cell signaling
chromatin modification

24
Q

how does cell regulation relate to gene regulation?

A

different processes in the cell cannot be activated or deactivated without the signals to do so.

25
Q

what role is played by chromatin modification?

A

chromatin modification (acetylation of histone proteins) loosens the coils of a chromosome. this allows for transcription.
(methylation does the opposite).

26
Q

what are histones and nucleosomes?

A

histones are proteins within chromosomes that the DNA wraps around which forms units called nucleosomes.

27
Q

what is the importance of acetylation and methylation?

A

acetylation and methylation allows for the transcription of certain region of DNA.

28
Q

what does epigenetics mean?

A

epigenetics is the study of how chromatin structure and modification affect the expression of genes.

29
Q

what are transcription factors and control elements (enhancers) ?

A

substances that bind to enhancer sequences and facilitate RNA polymerase binding to the promoter sequence. they also recruit RNA polymerase to the promoter which enhances transcription.

30
Q

how do transcription factors contribute to differential gene expression?

A

different transcription factors bind to different enhancer regions turning the specific gene on. the same transcription factors will not turn on other genes.

31
Q

what is the significance of RNA splicing.

A

the splicing of RNA controls which sequences are produced and which proteins are created.

32
Q

how does RNA splicing work?

A

genes consist of both exon and intron sequences which are transcribed into primary mRNA transcript. when spliced, certain intron and exon sequences are removed and put together.

33
Q

what do the terms exon and intron mean?

A

an exon sequence is expressed. and intron sequence is not.

34
Q

how can a single gene encode multiple variations of a protein?

A

its exons can be spliced and reordered in different combinations which allows for variation.

35
Q

what are miRNAs? what is its importance?

A

microRNA are small RNA molecules that can block or inhibit translation by binding miRNA to mRNA causing degradation.

36
Q

how is protein activity regulated following translation?

A

phosphorylation.

37
Q

what is protein degradation?

A

many proteins only last for a short period of time before being broken down. these are degraded proteins, and must be continually replaced by the cell.

38
Q

what is a DNA microarray?

A

its a research tool for determining which genes are active in a cell at a certain time. it can be used to determining which genes are associated which different conditions

39
Q

what are stem cells?

A

undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into a variety of different cell types

40
Q

how do pluripotent and totipotent stem cells differ?

A

Totipotent- embryotic cells able to develop into ANY type of cell
Pluripotent-adult cells able to develop into a FEW type of cells.

41
Q

who was the first scientist to clone a vertebrate? how?

A

in 1902 Hans Spemann split a fertilized salamander egg and at the 2 cell stage split it into 2 and it grew into two salamander.

42
Q

who successfully cloned the first mammal?

A

Ian Wilmot cloned the first mammal Dolly the sheep in 1996.

43
Q

how was Dolly the sheep made?

A

Dolly was made using nuclear transfer.

44
Q

what is the difference between therapeutic and reproductive cloning?

A

Reproductive cloning - The use of cloning techniques to produce a complete cloned organisms
Therapeutic cloning - The use of cloning techniques to produce stem cells for the purposes of treating disease

General Biology 1 (11 decks)

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