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General Biology 1 > Cell Signaling and Division > Flashcards

Cell Signaling and Division Flashcards

cell division is not covered for the 3rd exam

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1
Q

what is cell signaling?

A

how cells respond to chemicals and messages. it includes signals at the cellular level or at the macroscopic level like adrenalin or increased heartrate.

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2
Q

what is epinephrine?

A

adrenalin

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3
Q

who discovered how epinephrine works and breaks down glycogen?

A

Earl sutherland

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4
Q

what is the Earl Sutherland experiment

A

a series of experiements where epinephrine is added to liver cells to break glycogen into glucose.

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5
Q

what is apoptosis?

A

preprogrammed cell death. this is a type of cell signaling.

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6
Q

what is direct signaling?

A

direct signaling is cell-to-cell, and occurs when cells are in direct contact to each other.

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7
Q

what is local signaling?

A

local signaling is paracrine and synaptic signaling. it occurs when cells release ligands (messengers) that diffuse through the extracellular matrix to communicate with other cells. these signals are short.

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8
Q

what is long distance signaling?

A

long distance cell signals travels distances across the entire body to a specific target, this often includes signals in the nervous system.

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9
Q

paracrine vs synaptic signaling.

A

paracrine is a basic form of local signaling, it starts in one cell and messages any nearby.

synaptic signaling is also local, but its messages are targeted because it occurs in the junctions between two neurons called the synapse.

all synaptic signaling is paracrine, but not all paracrine is synaptic.

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10
Q

what are the three steps of cell signaling?

A

reception (detecting the signal molecule/ligand), transduction (converting signal through cell), response (cell carries out appropriate action)

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11
Q

what occurs during reception?

A

a ligand (first messenger) binds to a specific protein (receptor) on the cell membrane or inside the cell.

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12
Q

what occurs during transduction?

A

once ligand binds and activates the receptor, a series of relay molecules are activated one after the other. this often involves phosphorylation, or enzymes (cyclicAMP) to catalyze the process

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13
Q

what allows the original message to be amplified and regulated?

A

an enzyme called cyclicAMP

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14
Q

what occurs during the response?

A

once the target area of the cell is reached, transduction pathways lead to responses in the cytoplasm or nucleus. this can mean enzyme activation, ion channel openings, metabolic regulation, or gene expression (turning a gene on or off)

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15
Q

what is meant by Virchow’s statement, omni cellula e cellula

A

it means cell must come from cells and cells form from pre-existing cells.

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16
Q

how do prokaryotic cells reproduce?

A

they reproduce through a type of cell division called binary fission.

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17
Q

how long does binary fission take?

A

on average 30 mins

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18
Q

what is mitosis?

A

mitosis is a type of cell division when a mother cells splits into two daughter cells which are genetically identical.

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19
Q

what’s the difference between mitosis and binary fission?

A

binary fission is a simpler process that occurs in prokaryote while mitosis is more complex and happens in eukaryotes.

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20
Q

what is chromatin?

A

chromatin is the strings of proteins and DNA that make up a chromosome

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21
Q

what is a chromatid?

A

a chromatic is half of a chromosome.

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22
Q

what are centromeres?

A

the centromere is the area of the chromosome that holds both chromatids together.

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23
Q

how many chromosomes are in a normal human cell?

A

46

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24
Q

what are spindle fibers?

A

microtubules that form from centrosomes during mitosis

25
Q

what are centrosomes

A

the centrosomes are organelles that during cell division duplicate then move to opposite sides of the cell to assemble spindle fibers.

26
Q

what is interphase?

A

normal cell activity

27
Q

when are chromosomes copied

A

during interphase

28
Q

what occurs during prophase?

A

its the second stage of mitosis. spindle fibers form. the chromatin in the nucleus condenses into chromosomes.

29
Q

what occurs during prometaphase

A

its the third step. the nuclear envelope dissolves. the spindle microtubules move and attach to the chromosomes kinetochore to move them to separate sides of the cell.

30
Q

what occurs during metaphase

A

this is the fourth step. the spindle microtubules arrange the chromosomes at the equator of the cell.

31
Q

what occurs during anaphase

A

this is the fifth step. the chromosomes are split into sister chromatids and are move to opposite side of the cells.

32
Q

what occurs during telophase

A

this is the sixth step. a new nuclear envelope forms around the sister chromatids and cleavage furrow forms.

33
Q

what is cytokinesis

A

this is the final step in mitosis. the splits into two.

34
Q

how does mitosis differ in animal cells and plant cells.

A

in plant cells a cleavage furrow is not formed and instead a cell wall is formed inside the cells.

35
Q

what are the stages of a cell cycle?

A

G1, S , G2, Mitosis
(gap 1, synthesis, gap 2, mitosis)

36
Q

what occurs during each phase in a cell cycle?

A

gap 1-normal cell activity
S-chromosome replication
gap 2-preperation for mitosis
M-mitosis begins

37
Q

which stages constitute interphase?

A

G1, S and G2

38
Q

what triggers a cell to move to the next stage of its life cycle? how does it work?

A

the protein CDK (cyclin dependent kinases) which binds to cycling which acts as a signal.

39
Q

how does cell signaling relate to the cell cycle?

A

cell signaling determines when the cell move on through each stage and prevents cells from undergoing to much division.

40
Q

what is cyclin?

A

cyclins are proteins that regulate the cell cycle by binding and activating CDKs.

41
Q

what are cyclin dependent kinases?

A

CDKs are a family of enzymes that regulate cell division in eukaryotic cells. they require a cyclin protein to be activated.

42
Q

what role is played by phosphate during cell division?

A

phosphate binds to and activates signal proteins.

43
Q

what are proto-oncogenes? what is a tumor suppressor gene?

A

proto-oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes both regulate cell division. proto-oncogenes turn on cell division (ex. cyclin), tumor suppressant genes turn off cell division (ex. p53). both encode proteins.

44
Q

what is P53? what is its importance?

A

the P53 gene regulates cell division and manages damaged and mutated DNA. when this protein is mutated or damaged, the cell has no way to stop cell division, leading to the development of tumors.

45
Q

what are mutagens?

A

mutagens are substances capable of mutating/altering a cells genetic information. mutagens can be chemicals, radiation or viruses.

46
Q

how can mutagens result in cancer?

A

when a mutagen alters a cells genetic material this might include a protein like P53, which regulates cell division. without a functioning regulator, the cell has no way to stop cells from dividing.

47
Q

what are HeLa cells?

A

cancer cells. HeLa cells where the first human cell line that could grow and divide endlessly in a laboratory. this significantly contributed to cancer research.

48
Q

when is mitosis used by cells?

A

mitosis is used for growth development and repair.

49
Q

how many chromosomes are in a human karyotype?

A

46

50
Q

what are homologous chromosomes?

A

a pair of chromosomes where one is from the mother and one from the father

51
Q

what does diploid and haploid mean?

A

haploid means a cell that contains only one set of chromosomes. diploid means means a cell containing two sets of chromosomes.

52
Q

what are autosomes and sex chromosomes?

A

autosomes are the numbered chromosomes (not X or Y). Sex chromosomes, either X or Y (you only have 2 sex chromosomes)

53
Q

what is meiosis?

A

cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms.

54
Q

what occurs during meiosis 1 & 2

A

1-homologous pairs are separated, then in 2 sister chromatids are separated.

55
Q

how many cells result from meiosis?

A

4 daughter cells

56
Q

how does meiosis produce genetic variety?

A

through the process of crossing over in prophase I.

57
Q

what are non-disjunctions? results?

A

the incorrect duplication of chromosomes that results in missing or extra copies of chromosomes, and can cause a varietty of genetic disorders

58
Q

what is trisomy 21?

A

trisomy is a genetic chromosome 21 disorder that results in developmental and intellectual delays. this more commonly know as Down Syndrome.

General Biology 1 (11 decks)

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