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APH217 > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

Chapters 14-22

1
Q

Erythrocyte

A

RBC - red blood cell

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2
Q

Hemoglobin

A

protein
red pigment
carries o2 on ions of iron
made of 4 protein chains, each chain has 1 ion of FE+

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3
Q

1 healthy RBC has how many molecules of hemoglobin

A

250mil molecules

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4
Q

What is oxyhemoglobin

A

Hemoglobin combined with oxygen
bright red

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5
Q

What is deoxyhemoglobin

A

hemoglobin with no oxygen
darker red

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6
Q

How long do RBCs live

A

120 days

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7
Q

Define cyanosis

A

turning blue

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8
Q

All blood cells produced where after birth?

A

in red bone marrow

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9
Q

4 vitamins & minerals needed for healthy RBC and blood

A

vit B12
folic acid
FE (iron)
Vit C

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10
Q

WBC types (leukocytes)

A

Granulocytes and agranulocytes

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11
Q

define granulocytes

A

Basophils
Eosinophils
Neutrophils

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12
Q

define agranulocytes

A

lymphocytes
monocytes

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13
Q

Basophils

A

produce heparin and histamine
heparin - anticoagulant
histamine - vasodilator, allergies

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14
Q

Eosinophils

A

kill certain parasites and worms by secreting toxic chemicals

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15
Q

neutrophils

A

most numerous of leukocytes
phagocytes

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16
Q

lymphocytes

A

T cells, B cells, NK cells

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17
Q

monocytes

A

largest WBCs
become macrophages after leaving bloodstream

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18
Q

Platelets (start of as what, live for how long, function)

A

Thrombocytes
Start off as megakaryocytes, then fragment into platelets
Live only for 10 days
Release serotonin which causes vasoconstriction

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19
Q

Most abundant blood solute

A

plasma proteins

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20
Q

which plasma protein is the most abundant

A

albumins

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21
Q

Vitamin needed for clotting

A

vitamin K

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22
Q

thrombus

A

unwanted blood clot

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23
Q

embolus

A

piece of unwanted blood clot breaks and starts moving

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24
Q

embolism

A

piece of blood clot blocks a blood vessel

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25
Q

Universal blood donor

A

0-

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26
Q

Universal recipient

A

AB+

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27
Q

Pericardium

A

Sac around the heart (serous)

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28
Q

Epicardium

A

Visceral pericardium

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29
Q

Myocardium

A

Heart Muscle

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30
Q

Endocardium

A

Layer of tissue inside the heart

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31
Q

Auricles

A

Little flaps
Help atrium hold more blood

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32
Q

Atrium/Atria

A

2 upper chambers

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33
Q

Ventricle/Ventricles

A

2 lower chambers

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34
Q

Septum/Septa

A

Tissue that divides the heart into left and right

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35
Q

Apex

A

Tip of the heart - at the bottom

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36
Q

Largest artery

A

Aorta

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37
Q

Largest Veins

A

Superior and Inferior vena cava

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38
Q

Heart valves - purpose and names

A

make sure that blood does not regurgitate
Atrioventricular
Semilunar

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39
Q

AV valve (left, right) names

A

Atrioventricular valve
Right - Tricuspid
Left - Bicuspid, mitral valve

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40
Q

SL Valves

A

Semilunar Valve
Pulmonary (from right ventricle to lungs)
Aortic (from left ventricle to aorta)

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41
Q

Ischemia

A

blood flow blocked off to tissue

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42
Q

Infarction

A

Blood flow gets cut off which results in tissue death

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43
Q

Angina Pectoris

A

Chest Pain

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44
Q

Myocardial Infarction

A

Heart Attack

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45
Q

Fibrillation

A

Small areas of the myocardium contract in an uncoordinated, chaotic fashion
A-FIB, V-FIB

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46
Q

A-FIB

A

Not life threatening
Ventricles still pump blood

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47
Q

V-FIB

A

Can be deadly

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48
Q

Tachycardia

A

Over 100bpm

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49
Q

Bradycardia

A

Less than 60bpm

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50
Q

Flutter

A

250-350bpm

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51
Q

Where are age related changes most apparent

A

In the Arteries

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52
Q

Flow of blood through the heart

A

Aorta - arteries - arterioles - capillaries - venules - veins - superior/inferior vena cava - right atrium - right AV valve - right ventricle - pulmonary valve - pulmonary arteries - lungs - pulmonary veins - left atrium - left AV valve - left ventricle - aortic valve

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53
Q

Lymphatic vessels are similar to..

A

Veins (cardiovascular)

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54
Q

Lymph aided in circulating through its vessels by movement of

A

skeletal muscles

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55
Q

Right lymphatic duct drains lymph from

A

right side of the head, neck, chest, right shoulder and right arm

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56
Q

Thoracic duct

A

Drains more - everywhere that the right lymphatic duct does not

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57
Q

Lymphangitis

A

Lymphatic vessels inflamed due to bacterial infection, red streaks on skin

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58
Q

Lymphadenitis

A

Inflamed lymph nodes

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59
Q

Thymus gland (location, function, larger when)

A

In the mediastinum
T-cells mature here with the help of hormone called thymosin
Larger in infancy/childhood

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60
Q

Mature T cell

A

Distinguishes self from non self

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61
Q

Spleen

A

Largest lymphatic organ
Reservoir of red blood cells

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62
Q

Describe 2 pulps found in spleen

A

Red pulp and white pulp
Both types of pulps contain lymphocytes and macrophages
Worn out RBCs are filtered in the red pulp

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63
Q

Innate immunity

A

Nonspecific defenses of immunity
Something we are born with
1st and 2nd lines of defenses

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64
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

Specific defenses of immunity
3rd line of defense

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65
Q

1st line of defense

A

Innate // Mechanical barries such as: intact skin, mucous membranes, cilia, hair, tears, saliva, urine

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66
Q

2nd line of defense

A

Innate // Chemical barriers such as inflammation, phagocytosis, NK cells, fever

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67
Q

Which immunity is fast/slow?

A

Innate immunity is fast
Adaptive immunity is slow

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68
Q

3rd line of defense

A

Specific // Adaptive
Antigens, T cells, B cells, Plasma cells

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69
Q

B cells

A

differentiate into memory cells and plasma cells

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70
Q

Plasma cells (produce what, function)

A

Produce Y shaped proteins called antibodies (also called immunoglobulins)
Antibodies combine with the antigen on the pathogen and destroy the pathogen by marking it for phagocytosis

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71
Q

Active immunity

A

The person’s own body makes the antibodies

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72
Q

Passive immunity

A

The person receives antibodies from another person or an animal

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73
Q

Hypersensitivity reaction (first 2 types)

A

Type 1. Allergy
Type 2. Mismatched blood transfusion

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74
Q

Tonsils

A

Pharyngeal (adenoids)
Palatine (tonsillectomy)
Lingual - at the root of the tongue

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75
Q

Salivary glands

A

1) Parotid - near the ear, watery saliva (serous fluid), largest
2) Submandibular - near lower jaw
3) Sublingual - contain lot of mucus

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76
Q

Deglutition

A

Swallowing

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77
Q

Esophageal Hiatus

A

Natural opening in the diaphragm for the esophagus to pass through stomach

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78
Q

Hiatal hernia

A

stomach pokes upward through hiatus into thoracic cavity

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79
Q

Sphincter between esophagus and stomach

A

3 names:
1) Lower esophageal
2) Gastroesophageal
3) Cardiac

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80
Q

Sphincter between stomach and duodenum

A

Pyloric

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81
Q

Most important gastric digestive enzyme (starts of as what)

A

Pepsin - starts of as pepsinogen

82
Q

Which gastric cells make intrinsic factor and HCI

A

Parietal cells

83
Q

Intrinsic factor (made where, used where and for what)

A

made in stomach, used in small intestine
required for B12 absorption

84
Q

Cholecystokinin (produced where, releases, stimulates, and influences what)

A

CCK
Peptide hormone produced in small intestine, released when we consume proteins and fats
Stimulates the pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes and gallbladder to contract to release bile
Influences gastric emptying and satiety

85
Q

Liver (function, what it makes, converts, stores, and helps with)

A

Largest internal organ
Detoxifies
Makes cholesterol, urea, bile, and plasma proteins
Converts excess carbs to fats
Stores glycogen, Fe, vitamins A, D, B12
Helps with breakdown/recycling of worn-out RBCs

86
Q

Insulin vs glucagon

A

In the liver
Insulin stimulates the liver cells to convert glucose to glycogen
Glucagon stimulates the liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose

87
Q

Carb digestion begins where

A

Mouth

88
Q

Protein digestion begins where

A

Stomach

89
Q

Triglyceride/ lipid digestion begins where

A

Duodenum (small intestine)

90
Q

VLDL and LDL

A

Bad cholesterol
(very low and low density lipoproteins)
More lipids, less proteins

91
Q

HDL

A

Good cholesterol
More protein, less lipids
High density lipoproteins

92
Q

What does HDL do

A

Picks up cholesterol from tissues and returns it to the liver

93
Q

Where is the appendix located?

A

Attached to the cecum

94
Q

Glycogenesis

A

Glucose to glycogen

95
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Breaking down glycogen to glucose

96
Q

Lipogenesis

A

Excess glucose converted to fats

97
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

Converts non-carbs into glucose (such as proteins and fats)

98
Q

Meaning of “essential”

A

Essential nutrients (fatty acids/amino acids) - cannot be synthesized by body, must be consumed

99
Q

Complete proteins

A

have adequate amounts of all essential amino acids

100
Q

incomplete proteins

A

lack 1 or more essential amino acids

101
Q

which hormone stimulates adipocytes to store fat

A

Insulin

102
Q

Leptin

A

a hormone that secretes adipocytes
suppresses appetite and increases BMR after eating

103
Q

Ghrelin

A

secretes in stomach
enhances appetite

104
Q

Healthy person can live how long without food?

A

50 - 70 days

105
Q

External Respiration

A

Breathing/Ventilation

106
Q

Internal respiration

A

In the tissue - Transportation / Exchange of gases

107
Q

Cellular respiration

A

Mitochondria
ATP production for energy

108
Q

Upper respiratory system

A

Nose
Nasal cavity
Sinuses
Pharynx - throat
Larynx - voicebox

109
Q

Lower respiratory system

A

Trachea - wind pipe
Bronchial tree
Lungs

110
Q

What holds open the trachea

A

about 20 C shaped tracheal cartilages

111
Q

As you descend down the bronchial tree, you find

A

less cartilage, more smooth muscle

112
Q

Number of lobes in lungs on right vs left

A

Right - 3 lobes
Left - 2 lobes

113
Q

Inspiration

A

Inhalation
Diaphragm flattens, intrapulmonary pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure
Air flows into the lungs

114
Q

Expiration

A

Exhalation
Diaphragm curves upward, intrapulmonary pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure
Air flows out of the lungs

115
Q

Surfactant

A

Lipoprotein
On inner surface of alveoli
Prevents collapsing of alveoli

116
Q

Respiratory areas located within what 2 areas of the brainstem

A

Pons and medulla oblongata

117
Q

Hyperventilation

A
  1. CO2 levels in blood drop
  2. blood PH levels rise
  3. blood flow to cerebral arterioles decreases
  4. Syncope (loss of consciousness)
118
Q

Transport of O2 (percentage)

A

98-99% - hemoglobin
1-2% - dissolved in plasma

119
Q

how strongly does carbon monoxide bind to hemoglobin

A

it adheres 200x more strongly than oxygen does

120
Q

Carbon Dioxide transport (CO2)

A

7% dissolves in plasma
23% carbaminohemoglobin (carried on hemoglobin protein)
70% bicarbonate ions (HCO3)

121
Q

Retroperitoneal cavity

A

“behind”
where kidneys reside

122
Q

Which kidney is usually lower/higher

A

Left kidney is usually higher, because of the liver on the right

123
Q

which connective tissue surrounds and holds kidneys in place

A

Adipose tissue

124
Q

Structure of the kidney (medula, cortex, pelvis)

A

renal medulla - middle of the kidney
renal cortex - outer layer
renal pelvis - where urine collects and empties into ureters

125
Q

Renal pyramids

A

cone shaped areas in the kidney where the renal cortex dips down

126
Q

Renal columns

A

dipped down areas of the renal cortex in between renal pyramids

127
Q

What do kidneys regulate

A

Volume and composition of body fluids
Blood pressure through production of enzyme renin

128
Q

What do kidneys remove

A

metabolic wastes, excess water, and excess electrolytes

129
Q

what do kidneys control

A

rate of erythropoiesis through the hormone erythropoietin

130
Q

what do kidneys form

A

the active form of vitamin D

131
Q

Acute vs chronic glomerulonephritis

A

Inflammation of the glomeruli
Acute - 1 to 3 weeks after Streptococcal infection, antigen-antibody complex blocks glomeruli. Most people regain kidney function
Chronic - progressive, eventually the kidneys fail, more likely to die from

132
Q

Figure 12.20 urinary structure in order

A

glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule > collecting duct > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra

133
Q

Renal corpuscle (figure 20.12)

A

glomerulus > glomerular capsule

134
Q

Urine formation (figure 20.12)

A

Glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule > collecting duct

135
Q

Parts of nephron (20.12)

A

glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule

136
Q

Drainage system (20.12)

A

minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter

137
Q

urine secretion (20.12)

A

minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra

138
Q

Storage structure (20.12)

A

urinary bladder

139
Q

elimination structure (20.12)

A

urethra

140
Q

Renal tubule structure in order

A

Proximal tubule
Nephron loop / loop of Henle descending limb
Nephron loop ascending limb
Distal tubule

141
Q

3 steps of urine formation

A
  1. Glomerular filtration
  2. Tubular reabsorption
  3. Tubular secretion
142
Q

GFR

A

glomerular filtration rate
the most commonly measured index of kidney function

143
Q

GFR tests

A

inulin and creatinine

144
Q

glomerular filtration

A

Water, smaller molecules, ions filtered out leaving larger molecules (proteins) behind in plasma

145
Q

Tubular reabsorption

A

From the renal tubules to the peritubular capillaries

146
Q

4 items reclaimed through tubular reabsorption

A

Extra Water
Extra Electrolytes
Amino acids
Glucose

147
Q

Tubular secretion

A

from the peritubular capillaries to the renal tubules

148
Q

Urea, uric acid, each derives from the catabolism of what

A

urea: catabolism of amino acids
uric acid: the catabolism of purines (adenine and guanine)

149
Q

Gout

A

type of arthritis- uric acid crystals fill up in the joints

150
Q

4 items that should not be in urine

A

Glucose
Proteins
Ketones
Blood cells

151
Q

The formation of angiotensin (BP regulation - figure 20.19)

A

Liver: produces angiotensinogen
Kidneys: produce Renin
Renin converts angiotensinogen to Angiotensin 1
Lungs: produce angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
This converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2
= causes vasoconstriction, which increases BP

152
Q

Fluid compartments (types)

A

Intracellular
Extracellular
Transcellular

153
Q

Extracellular fluid compartment

A

Outside cells - Lymph, Interstitial cells, Plasma

154
Q

Intracellular fluid compartment

A

inside the cell membranes (about 2/3 of all fluids)

155
Q

Transcellular fluid compartment

A

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Aqueous Humor- front of the eye
Vitreous Humor- back of the eye
Serous Fluid
Synovial Fluid- joints

156
Q

2 pressures that cause fluids to move between compartments

A

Osmotic: higher solute concentration
Hydrostatic: higher to lower pressure

157
Q

H20 intake - how much + where it comes from

A

2500 mL per day
60% beverages
30% moist foods
10% metabolic water (the chemical reactions that happen in your body

158
Q

Thirst mechanism is normally triggered when

A

whenever the total body water decreases by 1%

159
Q

Stretch receptors (volume receptors) of cardiovascular system cause thirst when

A

when blood volume decreases by 10%

160
Q

Hypotonic hydration

A

water intoxication- Sweating a lot replacing H2O but not electrolytes
Leads to hyponatremia (Low Na+)

161
Q

Hypoproteinemia

A

low plasma protein, causes edema

162
Q

Greatest electrolyte loss is how

A

occurs as a result of kidney function and urine production

163
Q

Regulation of electrolyte output

A

Aldosterone:
Produced in the adrenal cortex (outer part) hormone
Increase sodium ion reabsorption and potassium ion secretion at the same time

164
Q

The 3 chemical buffer systems (H+ regulation)

A

temporary & fast; first line of defense

Bicarbonate buffer system: HCO3-
Phosphate buffer system: seen in urine formation
Protein buffer system: albumins and hemoglobin

165
Q

The 2 physiological buffer systems (H+ regulation)

A

longer-term & slow; second line of defense
Respiratory System (lungs): several minutes
Urinary System (kidneys): 1-3 days

166
Q

Respiratory acidosis

A

increase of CO2 decreases the pH
Increased carbonic acid
Labored breathing
can result from injury to the brainstem, alveolar obstruction, diseases (PNA, emphysema)

167
Q

Metabolic acidosis

A

accumulation of acids other than carbonic: uremic acids, ketoacidosis (improper oxidation of fatty acids or the loss of bases: prolonged diarrhea

168
Q

Respiratory alkalosis

A

decrease of CO2 increases the pH
decreased carbonic acid
Factors that can lead to this are anxiety, salicylates (aspirin) poisoning, fever, high altitudes

169
Q

Metabolic alkalosis

A

Loss of hydrogen ions and gain of bases
Loss of H+: gastric lavage and excessive vomiting, diuretic drug use
Gain of bases: antacids (like sodium bicarbonate)

170
Q

Seminiferous tubules

A

site of spermatogenesis

171
Q

Epididymis (epididymides)

A

On top of the testis
Sperm go here to mature

172
Q

Ductus deferens

A

Also called vas deferens
Carries sperm from the epididymis into the male’s abdomen

173
Q

Seminal Vesicles

A

Produce a slightly alkaline material, to overcome acidity of the female reproductive tract.
Fructose: to help give sperm energy
Prostaglandins: contracting in female reproductive tract

174
Q

Prostate Gland Location

A

Inferior to the urinary bladder

175
Q

Prostate Gland Function

A

Creates a thin, milky fluid: includes citrate- nourishes sperm
PSA (prostate-specific antigen) - thins the semen that is forming (PSA levels go up when prostate cancer is present)

176
Q

Bulbourethral glands

A

also called Cowper’s glands
provide lubrication for tip of penis during coitus

177
Q

Scrotum

A

Sac outside the body where testes are located (to decrease the temp by 5 degree F or 3 degrees C)

178
Q

Follicle

A

Egg and surrounding tissue (protect and nourish)

179
Q

uterine tubes are also called

A

oviducts or fallopian tubes

180
Q

Structure of uterus

A

Upper, rounded portion: Fundus
Middle portion: Body
“Neck” of the uterus: Cervix

181
Q

Endometrium

A

lining of uterus sloughed off during menstruation

182
Q

Myometrium

A

smooth muscle of uterus

183
Q

Fornix/fornices

A

recesses between the vaginal wall and the cervix

184
Q

Female External Accessory Reproductive Organs

A

Labium Majus/Labia Majora
Labium minus/labia minora
Clitoris
Glens clitoris
Vestibule

185
Q

Labium Majus/Labia Majora

A

Outer, lip- shaped structures projecting exterior of the vagina

186
Q

Labium minus/labia minora

A

smaller, inter structures

187
Q

Female erectile tissue

A

Clitoris

188
Q

Head of the clitoris

A

glens clitoris

189
Q

Vestibular glands

A

Bartholin’s and Skene’s glands
Used for lubrication

190
Q

Most common form of estrogen

A

estradiol

191
Q

Drop in progesterone causes

A

begin menstruation

192
Q

function of progesterone is to

A

maintain endometrium

193
Q

Role of progesterone production during pregnancy from corpus luteum to placenta

A

Once impregnated, Corpus Luteum secretes progesterone for about 10 weeks
Then placenta takes over and begins progesterone production

194
Q

Menarche

A

1st menstrual period

195
Q

vestibule

A

area between labia minora

196
Q

menopause

A

no menstrual periods for 12 months

197
Q

T cells

A

Target tumor cells, cancer cells, and cells infected with viruses. DO NOT GO AFTER BACTERIA - neutrophils DO
Differentiate into cytotoxic and helper cells

198
Q

Cytotoxic T cells

A

Kill enemy cells
Also involved in tissue rejection

199
Q

Helper T cells

A

Produce chemicals called cytokines that stimulate other WBCs to act

200
Q

NK cells

A

Natural killer cells
Puncture cell membranes of enemy cells
Performed through the production of perforin

APH217 (10 decks)

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