Final Exam Flashcards
Chapters 14-22
Erythrocyte
RBC - red blood cell
Hemoglobin
protein
red pigment
carries o2 on ions of iron
made of 4 protein chains, each chain has 1 ion of FE+
1 healthy RBC has how many molecules of hemoglobin
250mil molecules
What is oxyhemoglobin
Hemoglobin combined with oxygen
bright red
What is deoxyhemoglobin
hemoglobin with no oxygen
darker red
How long do RBCs live
120 days
Define cyanosis
turning blue
All blood cells produced where after birth?
in red bone marrow
4 vitamins & minerals needed for healthy RBC and blood
vit B12
folic acid
FE (iron)
Vit C
WBC types (leukocytes)
Granulocytes and agranulocytes
define granulocytes
Basophils
Eosinophils
Neutrophils
define agranulocytes
lymphocytes
monocytes
Basophils
produce heparin and histamine
heparin - anticoagulant
histamine - vasodilator, allergies
Eosinophils
kill certain parasites and worms by secreting toxic chemicals
neutrophils
most numerous of leukocytes
phagocytes
lymphocytes
T cells, B cells, NK cells
monocytes
largest WBCs
become macrophages after leaving bloodstream
Platelets (start of as what, live for how long, function)
Thrombocytes
Start off as megakaryocytes, then fragment into platelets
Live only for 10 days
Release serotonin which causes vasoconstriction
Most abundant blood solute
plasma proteins
which plasma protein is the most abundant
albumins
Vitamin needed for clotting
vitamin K
thrombus
unwanted blood clot
embolus
piece of unwanted blood clot breaks and starts moving
embolism
piece of blood clot blocks a blood vessel
Universal blood donor
0-
Universal recipient
AB+
Pericardium
Sac around the heart (serous)
Epicardium
Visceral pericardium
Myocardium
Heart Muscle
Endocardium
Layer of tissue inside the heart
Auricles
Little flaps
Help atrium hold more blood
Atrium/Atria
2 upper chambers
Ventricle/Ventricles
2 lower chambers
Septum/Septa
Tissue that divides the heart into left and right
Apex
Tip of the heart - at the bottom
Largest artery
Aorta
Largest Veins
Superior and Inferior vena cava
Heart valves - purpose and names
make sure that blood does not regurgitate
Atrioventricular
Semilunar
AV valve (left, right) names
Atrioventricular valve
Right - Tricuspid
Left - Bicuspid, mitral valve
SL Valves
Semilunar Valve
Pulmonary (from right ventricle to lungs)
Aortic (from left ventricle to aorta)
Ischemia
blood flow blocked off to tissue
Infarction
Blood flow gets cut off which results in tissue death
Angina Pectoris
Chest Pain
Myocardial Infarction
Heart Attack
Fibrillation
Small areas of the myocardium contract in an uncoordinated, chaotic fashion
A-FIB, V-FIB
A-FIB
Not life threatening
Ventricles still pump blood
V-FIB
Can be deadly
Tachycardia
Over 100bpm
Bradycardia
Less than 60bpm
Flutter
250-350bpm
Where are age related changes most apparent
In the Arteries
Flow of blood through the heart
Aorta - arteries - arterioles - capillaries - venules - veins - superior/inferior vena cava - right atrium - right AV valve - right ventricle - pulmonary valve - pulmonary arteries - lungs - pulmonary veins - left atrium - left AV valve - left ventricle - aortic valve
Lymphatic vessels are similar to..
Veins (cardiovascular)
Lymph aided in circulating through its vessels by movement of
skeletal muscles
Right lymphatic duct drains lymph from
right side of the head, neck, chest, right shoulder and right arm
Thoracic duct
Drains more - everywhere that the right lymphatic duct does not
Lymphangitis
Lymphatic vessels inflamed due to bacterial infection, red streaks on skin
Lymphadenitis
Inflamed lymph nodes
Thymus gland (location, function, larger when)
In the mediastinum
T-cells mature here with the help of hormone called thymosin
Larger in infancy/childhood
Mature T cell
Distinguishes self from non self
Spleen
Largest lymphatic organ
Reservoir of red blood cells
Describe 2 pulps found in spleen
Red pulp and white pulp
Both types of pulps contain lymphocytes and macrophages
Worn out RBCs are filtered in the red pulp
Innate immunity
Nonspecific defenses of immunity
Something we are born with
1st and 2nd lines of defenses
Adaptive immunity
Specific defenses of immunity
3rd line of defense
1st line of defense
Innate // Mechanical barries such as: intact skin, mucous membranes, cilia, hair, tears, saliva, urine
2nd line of defense
Innate // Chemical barriers such as inflammation, phagocytosis, NK cells, fever
Which immunity is fast/slow?
Innate immunity is fast
Adaptive immunity is slow
3rd line of defense
Specific // Adaptive
Antigens, T cells, B cells, Plasma cells
B cells
differentiate into memory cells and plasma cells
Plasma cells (produce what, function)
Produce Y shaped proteins called antibodies (also called immunoglobulins)
Antibodies combine with the antigen on the pathogen and destroy the pathogen by marking it for phagocytosis
Active immunity
The person’s own body makes the antibodies
Passive immunity
The person receives antibodies from another person or an animal
Hypersensitivity reaction (first 2 types)
Type 1. Allergy
Type 2. Mismatched blood transfusion
Tonsils
Pharyngeal (adenoids)
Palatine (tonsillectomy)
Lingual - at the root of the tongue
Salivary glands
1) Parotid - near the ear, watery saliva (serous fluid), largest
2) Submandibular - near lower jaw
3) Sublingual - contain lot of mucus
Deglutition
Swallowing
Esophageal Hiatus
Natural opening in the diaphragm for the esophagus to pass through stomach
Hiatal hernia
stomach pokes upward through hiatus into thoracic cavity
Sphincter between esophagus and stomach
3 names:
1) Lower esophageal
2) Gastroesophageal
3) Cardiac
Sphincter between stomach and duodenum
Pyloric
Most important gastric digestive enzyme (starts of as what)
Pepsin - starts of as pepsinogen
Which gastric cells make intrinsic factor and HCI
Parietal cells
Intrinsic factor (made where, used where and for what)
made in stomach, used in small intestine
required for B12 absorption
Cholecystokinin (produced where, releases, stimulates, and influences what)
CCK
Peptide hormone produced in small intestine, released when we consume proteins and fats
Stimulates the pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes and gallbladder to contract to release bile
Influences gastric emptying and satiety
Liver (function, what it makes, converts, stores, and helps with)
Largest internal organ
Detoxifies
Makes cholesterol, urea, bile, and plasma proteins
Converts excess carbs to fats
Stores glycogen, Fe, vitamins A, D, B12
Helps with breakdown/recycling of worn-out RBCs
Insulin vs glucagon
In the liver
Insulin stimulates the liver cells to convert glucose to glycogen
Glucagon stimulates the liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose
Carb digestion begins where
Mouth
Protein digestion begins where
Stomach
Triglyceride/ lipid digestion begins where
Duodenum (small intestine)
VLDL and LDL
Bad cholesterol
(very low and low density lipoproteins)
More lipids, less proteins
HDL
Good cholesterol
More protein, less lipids
High density lipoproteins
What does HDL do
Picks up cholesterol from tissues and returns it to the liver
Where is the appendix located?
Attached to the cecum
Glycogenesis
Glucose to glycogen
Glycogenolysis
Breaking down glycogen to glucose
Lipogenesis
Excess glucose converted to fats
Gluconeogenesis
Converts non-carbs into glucose (such as proteins and fats)
Meaning of “essential”
Essential nutrients (fatty acids/amino acids) - cannot be synthesized by body, must be consumed
Complete proteins
have adequate amounts of all essential amino acids
incomplete proteins
lack 1 or more essential amino acids
which hormone stimulates adipocytes to store fat
Insulin
Leptin
a hormone that secretes adipocytes
suppresses appetite and increases BMR after eating
Ghrelin
secretes in stomach
enhances appetite
Healthy person can live how long without food?
50 - 70 days
External Respiration
Breathing/Ventilation
Internal respiration
In the tissue - Transportation / Exchange of gases
Cellular respiration
Mitochondria
ATP production for energy
Upper respiratory system
Nose
Nasal cavity
Sinuses
Pharynx - throat
Larynx - voicebox
Lower respiratory system
Trachea - wind pipe
Bronchial tree
Lungs
What holds open the trachea
about 20 C shaped tracheal cartilages
As you descend down the bronchial tree, you find
less cartilage, more smooth muscle
Number of lobes in lungs on right vs left
Right - 3 lobes
Left - 2 lobes
Inspiration
Inhalation
Diaphragm flattens, intrapulmonary pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure
Air flows into the lungs
Expiration
Exhalation
Diaphragm curves upward, intrapulmonary pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure
Air flows out of the lungs
Surfactant
Lipoprotein
On inner surface of alveoli
Prevents collapsing of alveoli
Respiratory areas located within what 2 areas of the brainstem
Pons and medulla oblongata
Hyperventilation
- CO2 levels in blood drop
- blood PH levels rise
- blood flow to cerebral arterioles decreases
- Syncope (loss of consciousness)
Transport of O2 (percentage)
98-99% - hemoglobin
1-2% - dissolved in plasma
how strongly does carbon monoxide bind to hemoglobin
it adheres 200x more strongly than oxygen does
Carbon Dioxide transport (CO2)
7% dissolves in plasma
23% carbaminohemoglobin (carried on hemoglobin protein)
70% bicarbonate ions (HCO3)
Retroperitoneal cavity
“behind”
where kidneys reside
Which kidney is usually lower/higher
Left kidney is usually higher, because of the liver on the right
which connective tissue surrounds and holds kidneys in place
Adipose tissue
Structure of the kidney (medula, cortex, pelvis)
renal medulla - middle of the kidney
renal cortex - outer layer
renal pelvis - where urine collects and empties into ureters
Renal pyramids
cone shaped areas in the kidney where the renal cortex dips down
Renal columns
dipped down areas of the renal cortex in between renal pyramids
What do kidneys regulate
Volume and composition of body fluids
Blood pressure through production of enzyme renin
What do kidneys remove
metabolic wastes, excess water, and excess electrolytes
what do kidneys control
rate of erythropoiesis through the hormone erythropoietin
what do kidneys form
the active form of vitamin D
Acute vs chronic glomerulonephritis
Inflammation of the glomeruli
Acute - 1 to 3 weeks after Streptococcal infection, antigen-antibody complex blocks glomeruli. Most people regain kidney function
Chronic - progressive, eventually the kidneys fail, more likely to die from
Figure 12.20 urinary structure in order
glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule > collecting duct > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra
Renal corpuscle (figure 20.12)
glomerulus > glomerular capsule
Urine formation (figure 20.12)
Glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule > collecting duct
Parts of nephron (20.12)
glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule
Drainage system (20.12)
minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter
urine secretion (20.12)
minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra
Storage structure (20.12)
urinary bladder
elimination structure (20.12)
urethra
Renal tubule structure in order
Proximal tubule
Nephron loop / loop of Henle descending limb
Nephron loop ascending limb
Distal tubule
3 steps of urine formation
- Glomerular filtration
- Tubular reabsorption
- Tubular secretion
GFR
glomerular filtration rate
the most commonly measured index of kidney function
GFR tests
inulin and creatinine
glomerular filtration
Water, smaller molecules, ions filtered out leaving larger molecules (proteins) behind in plasma
Tubular reabsorption
From the renal tubules to the peritubular capillaries
4 items reclaimed through tubular reabsorption
Extra Water
Extra Electrolytes
Amino acids
Glucose
Tubular secretion
from the peritubular capillaries to the renal tubules
Urea, uric acid, each derives from the catabolism of what
urea: catabolism of amino acids
uric acid: the catabolism of purines (adenine and guanine)
Gout
type of arthritis- uric acid crystals fill up in the joints
4 items that should not be in urine
Glucose
Proteins
Ketones
Blood cells
The formation of angiotensin (BP regulation - figure 20.19)
Liver: produces angiotensinogen
Kidneys: produce Renin
Renin converts angiotensinogen to Angiotensin 1
Lungs: produce angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
This converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2
= causes vasoconstriction, which increases BP
Fluid compartments (types)
Intracellular
Extracellular
Transcellular
Extracellular fluid compartment
Outside cells - Lymph, Interstitial cells, Plasma
Intracellular fluid compartment
inside the cell membranes (about 2/3 of all fluids)
Transcellular fluid compartment
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Aqueous Humor- front of the eye
Vitreous Humor- back of the eye
Serous Fluid
Synovial Fluid- joints
2 pressures that cause fluids to move between compartments
Osmotic: higher solute concentration
Hydrostatic: higher to lower pressure
H20 intake - how much + where it comes from
2500 mL per day
60% beverages
30% moist foods
10% metabolic water (the chemical reactions that happen in your body
Thirst mechanism is normally triggered when
whenever the total body water decreases by 1%
Stretch receptors (volume receptors) of cardiovascular system cause thirst when
when blood volume decreases by 10%
Hypotonic hydration
water intoxication- Sweating a lot replacing H2O but not electrolytes
Leads to hyponatremia (Low Na+)
Hypoproteinemia
low plasma protein, causes edema
Greatest electrolyte loss is how
occurs as a result of kidney function and urine production
Regulation of electrolyte output
Aldosterone:
Produced in the adrenal cortex (outer part) hormone
Increase sodium ion reabsorption and potassium ion secretion at the same time
The 3 chemical buffer systems (H+ regulation)
temporary & fast; first line of defense
Bicarbonate buffer system: HCO3-
Phosphate buffer system: seen in urine formation
Protein buffer system: albumins and hemoglobin
The 2 physiological buffer systems (H+ regulation)
longer-term & slow; second line of defense
Respiratory System (lungs): several minutes
Urinary System (kidneys): 1-3 days
Respiratory acidosis
increase of CO2 decreases the pH
Increased carbonic acid
Labored breathing
can result from injury to the brainstem, alveolar obstruction, diseases (PNA, emphysema)
Metabolic acidosis
accumulation of acids other than carbonic: uremic acids, ketoacidosis (improper oxidation of fatty acids or the loss of bases: prolonged diarrhea
Respiratory alkalosis
decrease of CO2 increases the pH
decreased carbonic acid
Factors that can lead to this are anxiety, salicylates (aspirin) poisoning, fever, high altitudes
Metabolic alkalosis
Loss of hydrogen ions and gain of bases
Loss of H+: gastric lavage and excessive vomiting, diuretic drug use
Gain of bases: antacids (like sodium bicarbonate)
Seminiferous tubules
site of spermatogenesis
Epididymis (epididymides)
On top of the testis
Sperm go here to mature
Ductus deferens
Also called vas deferens
Carries sperm from the epididymis into the male’s abdomen
Seminal Vesicles
Produce a slightly alkaline material, to overcome acidity of the female reproductive tract.
Fructose: to help give sperm energy
Prostaglandins: contracting in female reproductive tract
Prostate Gland Location
Inferior to the urinary bladder
Prostate Gland Function
Creates a thin, milky fluid: includes citrate- nourishes sperm
PSA (prostate-specific antigen) - thins the semen that is forming (PSA levels go up when prostate cancer is present)
Bulbourethral glands
also called Cowper’s glands
provide lubrication for tip of penis during coitus
Scrotum
Sac outside the body where testes are located (to decrease the temp by 5 degree F or 3 degrees C)
Follicle
Egg and surrounding tissue (protect and nourish)
uterine tubes are also called
oviducts or fallopian tubes
Structure of uterus
Upper, rounded portion: Fundus
Middle portion: Body
“Neck” of the uterus: Cervix
Endometrium
lining of uterus sloughed off during menstruation
Myometrium
smooth muscle of uterus
Fornix/fornices
recesses between the vaginal wall and the cervix
Female External Accessory Reproductive Organs
Labium Majus/Labia Majora
Labium minus/labia minora
Clitoris
Glens clitoris
Vestibule
Labium Majus/Labia Majora
Outer, lip- shaped structures projecting exterior of the vagina
Labium minus/labia minora
smaller, inter structures
Female erectile tissue
Clitoris
Head of the clitoris
glens clitoris
Vestibular glands
Bartholin’s and Skene’s glands
Used for lubrication
Most common form of estrogen
estradiol
Drop in progesterone causes
begin menstruation
function of progesterone is to
maintain endometrium
Role of progesterone production during pregnancy from corpus luteum to placenta
Once impregnated, Corpus Luteum secretes progesterone for about 10 weeks
Then placenta takes over and begins progesterone production
Menarche
1st menstrual period
vestibule
area between labia minora
menopause
no menstrual periods for 12 months
T cells
Target tumor cells, cancer cells, and cells infected with viruses. DO NOT GO AFTER BACTERIA - neutrophils DO
Differentiate into cytotoxic and helper cells
Cytotoxic T cells
Kill enemy cells
Also involved in tissue rejection
Helper T cells
Produce chemicals called cytokines that stimulate other WBCs to act
NK cells
Natural killer cells
Puncture cell membranes of enemy cells
Performed through the production of perforin
