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APH217 > EXAM 4 > Flashcards

EXAM 4 Flashcards

Chapter 20, 21, and 22

1
Q

Retroperitoneal cavity

A

“behind”
where kidneys reside

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2
Q

Adipose tissue (urinary tract)

A

connective tissue, surrounds and cushions kidneys and holds them in place

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3
Q

Which kidney is usually lower/higher

A

Left kidney is usually higher, because of the liver on the right

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4
Q

Structure of the kidney (medula, cortex, pelvis)

A

renal medulla - middle of the kidney
renal cortex - outer layer
renal pelvis - where urine collects and empties into ureters

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5
Q

Renal pyramids

A

cone shaped areas in the kidney where the renal cortex dips down

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6
Q

Renal columns

A

dipped down areas of the renal cortex in between renal pyramids

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7
Q

Functional unit of the kidneys (how many per kidney, function, what do they filter)

A

Nephrons - 1 to 1.5 mil per kidney
Main function is to filter blood.
Also filter out other things like hydrogen ions, bacteria, antibiotics

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8
Q

Functions of the kidneys (one word)

A

Regulate
Remove
Control
Form

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9
Q

What do kidneys regulate

A

Volume and composition of body fluids
Blood pressure through production of enzyme renin

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10
Q

What do kidneys remove

A

metabolic wastes, excess water, and excess electrolytes

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11
Q

what do kidneys control

A

rate of erythropoiesis through the hormone erythropoietin

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12
Q

what do kidneys form

A

the active form of vitamin D

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13
Q

Renal corpuscle is composed of what 2 structures

A

Glomerulus - cluster of capillaries
Glomerular capsule - Bowman’s capsule, saclike structure surrounding glomerulus

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14
Q

Ingoing and outgoing vessels of gromerulus

A

Afferent arterioles - carries blood to the clusters
Efferent arterioles - carries blood away from the clusters

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15
Q

Renal tubule structure in order

A

Proximal tubule
Nephron loop / loop of Henle descending limb
Nephron loop ascending limb
Distal tubule

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16
Q

Peritubular capillaries

A

network of capillaries surrounding the exterior of the nephron loop

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17
Q

Acute vs chronic glomerulonephritis

A

Inflammation of the glomeruli
Acute - 1 to 3 weeks after Streptococcal infection, antigen-antibody complex blocks glomeruli. Most people regain kidney function
Chronic - progressive, eventually the kidneys fail, more likely to die from

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18
Q

Nephritis

A

Inflammation of the kidneys

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19
Q

Figure 12.20 structure in order (urinary)

A

glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule > collecting duct > minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra

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20
Q

Renal corpuscle (figure 20.12)

A

glomerulus > glomerular capsule

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21
Q

Urine formation (figure 20.12)

A

Glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule > collecting duct

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22
Q

Parts of nephron (20.12)

A

glomerulus > glomerular capsule > proximal tubule > descending limb > ascending limb > distal tubule

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23
Q

Drainage system (20.12)

A

minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter

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24
Q

urine secretion (20.12)

A

minor calyx > major calyx > renal pelvis > ureter > urinary bladder > urethra

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25
Q

Storage structure (20.12)

A

urinary bladder

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26
Q

elimination structure (20.12)

A

urethra

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27
Q

3 steps of urine formation

A
  1. Glomerular filtration
  2. Tubular reabsorption
  3. Tubular secretion
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28
Q

glomerular filtration

A

Water, smaller molecules, ions filtered out leaving larger molecules (proteins) behind in plasma

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29
Q

Glomerular filtrate is similar to

A

interstitial fluid, lymph, and plasma, minus large proteins

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30
Q

Pressure that drives glomerular filtration

A

hydrostatic pressure

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31
Q

GFR

A

glomerular filtration rate
the most commonly measured index of kidney function

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32
Q

how many times a day is plasma filtered

A

60 times a day

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33
Q

How many liters of fluid are filtered
How much becomes urine

A

24 hours: filter 180 L
0.6-2.5 L become urine

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34
Q

Glomerular filtrate will continue to be produced if

A

as long as the systemic blood pressure maintains normal limits

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35
Q

what happens when GFR is too slow vs too fast

A

Too fast: increased urine output, more substances end up in the urine
Too slow: increased reabsorption, decreased urine output

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36
Q

keeping GFR constant by adjusting what

A

to maintain homeostasis, the body must adjust glomerular blood pressure

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37
Q

Tubular reabsorption

A

From the renal tubules to the peritubular capillaries

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38
Q

4 items reclaimed through tubular reabsorption

A

Extra Water
Extra Electrolytes
Amino acids
Glucose

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39
Q

Renal plasma threshold

A

normally all of the filtered glucose is reabsorbed back into the bloodstream,
when the renal plasma threshold is exceeded, some of the glucose will end up in the urine

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40
Q

Glycosuria

A

glucose in urine

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41
Q

Diuresis

A

increase in urine volume

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42
Q

endocytosis used to reclaim what molecules

A

Smaller proteins such as albumins

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43
Q

Na+ ions - which percentage is reabsorbed and by what process

A

approximately 70% reabsorbed by active transport

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44
Q

Nephrotic syndrome (what it causes & what it leads to)

A

proteinuria (plasma proteins are being lost)
leads to edema

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45
Q

Tubular secretion

A

from the peritubular capillaries to the renal tubules

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46
Q

Urea, uric acid, each derives from the catabolism of what

A

urea: catabolism of amino acids
uric acid: the catabolism of purines (adenine and guanine)

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47
Q

Gout

A

type of arthritis- uric acid crystals fill up in the joints

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48
Q

pH of urine influenced by reabsorption or secretion of what

A

by absorption/secretion of H+ (hydrogen ion)

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49
Q

Probenecid

A
  1. given with certain antibiotics to block tubular secretions to increase antibiotic levels in the blood.
  2. increases secretion of uric acid in patients with gout
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50
Q

Urine is ____% water

A

95%

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51
Q

4 common solutes in urine. Which one is the most prevalent

A

Urea - most abundant
Uric acid
Creatinine
Creatine

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52
Q

4 items that should not be in urine

A

Glucose
Proteins
Ketones
Blood cells

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53
Q

Renal clearance (tests)

A

the rate of which a chemical is removed from the plasma
Tests include:
Inulin clearance
creatinine clearance test

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54
Q

Ureters (+ which muscle)

A

from kidneys to the bladder
smooth muscle for peristalsis that help move the urine down.

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55
Q

Urethra

A

from bladder to the outside of the body

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56
Q

ESWL

A

extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (procedure that breaks down stones)

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57
Q

nephrolithiasis

A

kidney stones

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58
Q

2 urethral sphincters

A

internal and external

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59
Q

Male’s internal urethral sphincter prevents what

A

prevents the flow of semen into the bladder during ejaculation

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60
Q

Trigone

A

floor of the bladder

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61
Q

Detrusor

A

smooth muscle of the bladder

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62
Q

micturition

A

urination

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63
Q

The formation of angiotensin (BP regulation - figure 20.19)

A

Liver: produces angiotensinogen
Kidneys: produce Renin > Angiotensin 1
Renin converts angiotensinogen to Angiotensin 1
Lungs: produce angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
This converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2
= causes vasoconstriction, which increases BP

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64
Q

medications that lower BP

A

ACE inhibitors

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65
Q

Adult FEMALE body by weight - percentage of water and why

A

52% water by weight
tend to have more adipose tissue
less H2O

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66
Q

Adult MALE body by weight - percentage of water

A

63% by weight
males tend to have more muscle tissue
more H2O

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67
Q

Fluid compartments (types)

A

Intracellular
Extracellular
Transcellular

68
Q

Extracellular fluid compartment

A

Outside cells - Lymph, Interstitial cells, Plasma

69
Q

Intracellular fluid compartment

A

inside the cell membranes (about 2/3 of all fluids)

70
Q

Transcellular fluid compartment

A

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Aqueous Humor- front of the eye
Vitreous Humor- back of the eye
Serous Fluid
Synovial Fluid- joints

71
Q

2 pressures that cause fluids to move between compartments

A

Osmotic: higher solute concentration
Hydrostatic: higher to lower pressure

72
Q

H20 intake - how much + where it comes from

A

2500 mL per day
60% beverages
30% moist foods
10% metabolic water (the chemical reactions that happen in your body

73
Q

Thirst mechanism is normally triggered by

A

by osmoreceptors, whenever the total body water decreases by 1%

74
Q

Stretch receptors (volume receptors) of cardiovascular system cause thirst when

A

when blood volume decreases by 10%

75
Q

Water output: 5 ways we lose water from the body

A

Urine
Feces
Sweat (sensible perspiration)
Evaporating off the skin (insensible perspiration)
Lungs during breathing

76
Q

Dehydration occurs if

A

If water intake is insufficient

77
Q

Hypotonic hydration (what it is and what it leads to)

A

water intoxication- replacing H2O but not electrolytes
Leads to hyponatremia (Low Na+)

78
Q

Hypoproteinemia

A

low plasma protein, causes edema

79
Q

Salt craving may be caused by

A

Severe electrolyte deficiency

80
Q

Greatest electrolyte loss is how

A

occurs as a result of kidney function and urine production

81
Q

Regulation of electrolyte output (hormone)

A

Aldosterone:
Produced in the adrenal cortex (outer part)
Increase sodium ion reabsorption and potassium ion secretion at the same time

82
Q

5 Sources of H+ cations in the body

A

Aerobic respiration of glucose
Anaerobic respiration of glucose
Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids
Oxidation of amino acids containing sulfur
Hydrolysis of phosphoproteins and nucleic acids

83
Q

Aerobic respiration of glucose

A

CO2 is produced

84
Q

Anaerobic respiration of glucose

A

Formation of lactic acid

85
Q

Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids

A

Formation of acidic ketone bodies

86
Q

Oxidation of amino acids containing sulfur

A

Formation of sulfuric acid

87
Q

Hydrolysis of phosphoproteins and nucleic acids

A

Formation of phosphoric acid

88
Q

The 3 chemical buffer systems (H+ regulation)

A

temporary & fast; first line of defense

Bicarbonate buffer system
Phosphate buffer system: seen in urine formation
Protein buffer system: albumins and hemoglobin

89
Q

The 2 physiological buffer systems (H+ regulation)

A

longer-term & slow; second line of defense
Respiratory System (lungs): several minutes
Urinary System (kidneys): 1-3 days

90
Q

Respiratory acidosis

A

increase of CO2, decreased pH
Increased carbonic acid
Labored breathing
can result from injury to the brainstem, alveolar obstruction, diseases (PNA, emphysema)

91
Q

Acid-Base PH range

A

Normal pH range in blood: 7.35-7.45
Survival range in blood: 6.8-8.0

92
Q

Respiratory acid

A

carbonic acid

93
Q

Respiratory alkalosis

A

decrease of CO2, increase of pH
decreased carbonic acid
Factors that can lead to this are anxiety, aspirin poisoning, fever, high altitudes

94
Q

Alkalosis PH

A

Above 7.45

95
Q

Acidosis PH

A

below 7.35

96
Q

Metabolic acidosis

A

accumulation of acids other than carbonic: uremic acids, ketoacidosis (improper oxidation of fatty acids or the loss of bases: prolonged diarrhea

97
Q

Metabolic alkalosis

A

Loss of hydrogen ions and gain of bases
Loss of H+: gastric lavage and excessive vomiting, diuretic drug use
Gain of bases: overuse of antacids

98
Q

Hypotonic dehydration

A

Losing more electrolytes than water

99
Q

Compensation

A

resistance to a shift in pH (chemical & physiological)

If the the problem is respiratory acidosis due to pulmonary disease, the respiratory system is not able to take part in the compensation.

100
Q

Gonads

A

the organs that produce sex hormones and gametes -Testes and Ovaries

101
Q

Gametes

A

sex cells (eggs/sperms)

102
Q

Diploid

A

46 chromosomes (23 pairs)

103
Q

Haploid

A

23 chromosomes

104
Q

Organs in the Male Reproductive System

A

testes

105
Q

Gubernaculum

A

Cord that’s guiding the descent of testes

106
Q

Inguinal Canal

A

allows for the descent of the testes from the abdomen to the scrotum

107
Q

When testes should descend

A

usually 1-2 months before birth, if not, then 3-6 months after birth

108
Q

Cryptorchidism

A

1 or both testes not descended

109
Q

Seminiferous tubules (function)

A

site of Spermatogenesis

110
Q

Cells that produce testosterone

A

Interstitial cells (cells of Leydig)

111
Q

Orchidectomy

A

Removal of 1 or both testes

112
Q

Epididymis (epididymides)

A

On top of the testis
Sperm go here to mature

113
Q

Ductus deferents

A

Alco called ductus deferential and vas deferens
Carries sperm from the epididymides into male’s abdomen

114
Q

Vasectomy

A

removal of vas deferens

115
Q

Seminal Vesicles

A

Produce a slightly alkaline material to overcome acidity of the female reproductive tract.
Fructose: to help give sperm energy
Prostaglandins: contracting in female reproductive tract

116
Q

Ejaculatory ducts

A

structure from seminal vesicles to urethra
found inside the prostate

117
Q

Prostate Gland Location

A

Inferior to the urinary bladder

118
Q

Prostate Gland Function

A

Creates a thin, milky fluid: includes citrate- nourishes sperm
PSA (prostate-specific antigen) - thins the semen that is forming (PSA levels go up when prostate cancer is present)

119
Q

When does prostate grow again and what does it cause

A

at or after age 50
enlarged prostate causing difficulty emptying bladder completely due to pressing on the urethra

120
Q

Semen – pH, volume, sperm concentration and how long do they live

A

pH 7.5 (slightly alkaline)
Volume: 2-5 mL
Sperm concentration: 120 million sperm per mL
Sperm can live up to 3-5 days after ejaculation in male body and up to 5 days in female body

121
Q

Bulbourethral glands

A

also called Cowper’s glands
provide lubrication for the penis during coitus

122
Q

Scrotum

A

Sac outside the body where testes are located (decreases the temp by 5 degree F or 3 degrees C)

123
Q

Glans penis

A

head of the penis

124
Q

Prepuce

A

foreskin

125
Q

Circumcision

A

surgical removal of the prepuce

126
Q

Structure of a Sperm Cell

A

Acrosome - contains enzymes to penetrate an egg and nucleus
Body or mid - piece contains the mitochondria (energy, ATP)
Tail: flagellum (movement)

127
Q

Puberty - Male: primary and secondary sex characteristics

A

Primary: enlargement of testes
Secondary: deeper voice, hair growth, narrowing of the waist, broadening of the shoulders

128
Q

Male climacteric

A

Increase in age - decrease in testosterone and decline in sexual function

129
Q

FSH, LH in males (function)

A

aids with sperm production

130
Q

Libido - how is it controlled

A

sex drive
controlled by testosterone

131
Q

Female Internal Accessory Reproductive Organs

A

Ovaries
Uterus
Vagina

132
Q

How are ovaries held in place

A

by ligaments:
Broad ligament
Suspensory ligament
Ovarian ligament

133
Q

Ovaries, cortex & medulla

A

Outer portion: cortex
Inner portion: medulla

134
Q

Follicle (function + location)

A

Egg and surrounding tissue (protect and nourish)

135
Q

Numbers of oocytes throughout life

A

about 1 million oocytes exists at birth
about 300 000 are left at puberty
300-400 are released from ovary during female’s reproductive life

136
Q

other names for uterine tubes

A

oviducts or fallopian tube

137
Q

Infundibulum

A

funnel shape end of the fallopian tube

138
Q

Fimbriae

A

branch-like projections on the end of infundibula

139
Q

Structure of uterus

A

Upper, rounded portion: Fundus
Middle portion: Body
“Neck”: Cervix

140
Q

Utero-, metro-, hystero-

A

all means uterus

141
Q

Endometrium

A

lining of uterus sloughed off during menstruation

142
Q

Myometrium

A

smooth muscle of uterus

143
Q

Perimetrium

A

Serosa external to the uterus

144
Q

Vagina structure

A

mucosa, muscularis, adventitia

145
Q

Vaginal opening

A

vaginal orifice

146
Q

Thin membrane partially over the vaginal orifice

A

hymen

147
Q

Fornix/fornices

A

recesses between the vaginal wall and the cervix

148
Q

Female External Accessory Reproductive Organs

A

Labia Majora
labia minora
Clitoris
Glens clitoris
Vestibule

149
Q

Labium Majus/Labia Majora

A

Outer, lip- shaped structures on the exterior of vagina

150
Q

Labium minus/labia minora

A

smaller, inter structures

151
Q

Female erectile tissue

A

Clitoris

152
Q

Head of the clitoris

A

glens clitoris

153
Q

Vestibule

A

area between labia minora

154
Q

Vestibular glands (names and function)

A

Bartholin’s and Skene’s glands
Used for lubrication

155
Q

FSH, LH in females

A

FSH: follicle stimulating hormone
LH: luteinizing hormone
both seen in menstrual cycle

156
Q

which hormone triggers ovulation

A

a spike in LH triggers ovulation

157
Q

Estrogen (most abundant form and function)

A

Estrogen - most abundant form is estradiol, effects primary and secondary sex characteristics

158
Q

Primary sex characteristics Female

A

enlargement of reproductive organs

159
Q

Female secondary sex characteristics

A

menstruation, breast development, increased adipose tissue, increased vascularization

160
Q

function of progesterone

A

maintains the endometrium

161
Q

Drop in progesterone causes what

A

begins menstruation

162
Q

Corpus Luteum

A

(yellow body)
secretes progesterone
shrinks when progesterone drops

163
Q

Role of progesterone production during pregnancy from corpus luteum to placenta

A

Once impregnated, Corpus Luteum secretes progesterone for about 10 weeks
Then placenta takes over and begins progesterone production

164
Q

Menarche

A

1st menstrual period

165
Q

menopause

A

no menstrual periods for 12 months

166
Q

Mature vs immature sperm

A

Immature sperm cannot swim

167
Q

Ejaculatory ducts

A

Structure from seminal vesicles to urethra - found inside the prostate

APH217 (10 decks)

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