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1
Q

Acoustic radiation

A

Axons leaving the mgn project to auditory cortex via the internal capsule in an array called acoustic radiation

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2
Q

Damage to auditory areas and hearing

A

A normal degree of hearing can be retained after unilateral lesions in the auditory cortex (this is not the same for hearing). But because of tonotopic organization in A1, its possible to make a restricted cortical lesion that destroys neurons with characteristic frequencies within a limited range

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3
Q

Mcgurk effect

A

Our hearing is largely based on vision

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4
Q

Strips of neurons running across a1 contain neurons that have fairly similar characteristic frequencies

A

Isofrequency bands

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5
Q

Auditory receptive fields vs visual receptive fields

A

We cannot place auditory receptive fields into simple/complex categories like visual fields

Cortical neurons have different temporal response patterns, some have a transient response to a brief sound while others have a sustained response

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6
Q

stimuli that evokes the strongest response in higher auditory

A

tend to be more complex than those that best excite neurons.

Some neurons are intensity tunes and give a peak response to a particular sound intensity

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7
Q

Isofrequency bands

A

Strips of neurons running across a1 contain neurons that have fairly similar characteristic frequencies

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8
Q

Example of tonotopy

A

Moving from base to the apex of the cochula, a progressive decrease in frequency that produces a maximal deformation of the basilar membrane

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9
Q

Tonotopy

A

When the baslair membrane resonates with a particular frequency in a particular spot
Tonotopic organization also occurs within the primary auditory cortex.

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10
Q

How different frequencies are represented by brain stem neurons

A

At low frequencies, phase locking is used
At intermediate frequencies, both phase locking and tonotopy are used
At high frequencies, tonotopy must be used to indicate sound frequency

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11
Q

Phase locking

A

Constant firing of cell at the same phase of a sound wave(at low frequencies some neurons fire action potentials every time the sound is at a particular phase. This makes it easy to determine the frequency of sound since it is the same as the firing frequency of the neurons action potential

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12
Q

How is frequency represented in Specific Movement of basliar membrane

A

Hair cells near apixal basilar membrane have characteristics of low frequencies
Hair cells near basal basilar membrane have high characteristic frequencies
There is a map of basilar membrane within cochlear nuclei

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13
Q

Auditory nerve fibers fire faster to same sound frequencies when the intensity is increased. What does this do to the basilar membrane

A

Produces movements of basilar membrane over greater distance and leads to activation of more hair cells. Increase in activated hair cels cause a broadening of the frequency range to which the fiber responds.

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14
Q

Loudness we perceive is correlated with..

A

Number of active neurons in the auditory nerve and their firing rate

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15
Q

Characteristic frequency

A

A neuron has characteristic frequency when it is most responsive to one frequency. Its less responsive to neighboring frequencies

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16
Q

Nature of input from the neurons in the spinal ganglion of the cochlea

A

Most spiral ganglion cells receive input from a single inner hair cell at a particular location on the baslar membrane.

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17
Q

Each Cochlear nucleus receives input from

A

Just one ear on the ipsilateral side (all other auditory nuclei in brain stem receive input from both ears)

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18
Q

Ways for extensive feedback for auditory pathways

A

Auditory cortex sends axons to MGN and inferior colliculus

Brainstem sends axons that contact outer hair cells

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19
Q

Projections from brainstem to other auditory pathways

A

Inferior colliculus sends axons to superior colliculus

Cerebellum

Outer hair cells

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20
Q

Axons in superior olive then intervate to..

A

Inferior colliculus in midbrain

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21
Q

Where does integration of auditory and visual information occur

A

Superior colliculus (inferior colliculus sends axons here)

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22
Q

Cells in ventral cochlear nucleus send axons to..

A

Superior olive (on both sides of brain stem)

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23
Q

Medullas sound processing structures

A

Dorsal cochlear nucleus

Ventral cochlear nucleus ipsilateral to the cochlea where the axon is originated)

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24
Q

Protein essential for outer hair cells motor and cochlear amplifer functioning

A

Prestin

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25
Decending input from brain to cochlea
Regulates auditory sensitivity
26
Effect of outer hair cells on the response of inner hair cells can be modified by..
Neurons outside the cochlea Theres also fibers projecting from the brain stem to the cochlea They can synapse onto outer hair cell and release Ach (this can change shape of outer hair cell and therefor affect response of inner hair cell
27
stages of amplification by outer hair cells
starts with motor proteins in membranes of outer hair cells bending of stereocilia acauses K to enter hair cell and depolarizes it this triggers motor proteins to activate and change length of hair cell this increases the flexing of basilar membrane
28
Conchular amplifier
Outer hair amplify movement of baslar membrane during low intensity sound stimuli - They involve motor proteins (only found in membrane of outer hair) - Outer hair cells respond to sound by both receptor potential and change in length - When outer hair amplify response of baslar membrane, inner hair cells bend more and produces a greater response in the auditory nerve
29
What does the spiral ganglion mostly communicate with
Inner hair cells (less than 5% receive output from outer hair even though they are more abundant)
30
are inner hair cells or outer hair cells more abundant
outer hair. 3/1.
31
Displacement of cilia in one direction..
Increases tension on tip link and increases amount of K movement -Entry of k causes cell to depolarize (different from normal neurons because of high k concentration in endolynph) this entry of k causes volted gated calcium channels to open -incoming calcium lead to release of NT from synaptic vesicle then diffuses to postsynaptic neurite from spinal ganglion
32
Ion channel and tip of stereocilium
Ion channel opens and closes when stereocilium is bent They only have two channels at the tip and the entire hair cell may only have 100
33
What happens with extremely loud sound..
Receptor potential of hair cell is saturated and tips of stereocilia move about 20nm to the side. This can cause damage
34
Lateral motion of the reticular membrane bends stereocilia on outer hair one way or the other…
One direction depolarizes while the other hyperolerizes
35
When baslar membrane moves up…
Lamina moves up and toward the modiolus (opposite happens when it it moves down)
36
how to restore hearing when auditory nerve is still intact
cochlear implant artificial cochlea)
37
whats the most common case of deafness
hair cell damage
38
what happens when basilar membrane moves in response to a motion at the stapes
entire foundation supporting the hair cells move because the basilar membrane, rods of corti, reticular lamina and hair cells are rigidly connected
39
spiral ganglion
bipolar neurites extending to the bases and sides of the hair cells where they receive synaptic input -axons from these cells enter the auditory vestibular nerve which projects to the cochlear nuclei in the medulla
40
what kinds of cells are hair cells
specialized epithelial cells
41
outer hair cells location
farther out than rods of corti
42
critical event for transduction of cells into neural signals
bending of celia
43
organ of corti and its function/structures
place in ear where neurons are first involved. Converts mechanical energy into change of membrane depolarization has hair cells with stereocilia extending from top
44
response of basilar membrane to sound
high frequency sound produce waves traveling wave which dissipates near the arrow and stiff base of the basilar membrane low frequency-wave propagates all the way to the apex of basilar membrane before disssapating
45
Tonotopy
Systematic organization of sound frequency within an auditory structure (like retinotopy in visual system)
46
Hebbian synapses
Neurons that fire together wire together
47
Apoptosis
Expression of cell death genes cause neurons to die. This process is apropos
48
Neurotrophins
A family of Tropic proteins. Nerve growth factors was one of these. Neurons compete with one another for limited quantities of trophies factors produced by target neurons
49
Tropic factors
Life sustaining substances that are provided in limited quantities by target cells
50
Auditory pathway
Auditory receptors (cochlea/ganglion) Superior olive (brain stem) Inferior colliculus? MGM auditory cortex
51
Visual pathway
Photoreceptors Retinal neurons Lgn Visual cortex
52
Outer hair cells
Receive signals from the brain and serve as mini biomechanics amplifier Attention Loud noises damage cells
53
Inner hair cells
Carry nerve signal of sound along the auditory to the brain
54
What are the ossicles
Mallius Incus Stapes
55
What happens during protective attenuation reflux
The tensor tympani muscle and stafpedius muscle lock down the middle ear within 50-100ms
56
Ganglion cells combine to form the receptive field of...
A single LGN cell
57
The receptive fields of many LGN cells combine to form the receptive field of..
A single V1 cell
58
What are the five vertebrae regions
Cervical nerves Thoracic nerves Lumbar nerves Sacral nerves
59
What are the three cuts
Midsaggital Horizontal Coronal
60
Basal telencephalon function
Helps with initiating voluntary movement. Cortex communicates with neurons in basil ganglia, a collection of cells in basal telencephalon Amygdela is located here which is involved in fear and emotion
61
Thalamus function
Send axons to the cortex via internal capsule . It’s considered gateway to cerebral cortex because of sensory pathways serving vision and audition and somatic sensation relays in thalamus
62
Hypothalmus function
Controls autonomic nervous system and regulates body function in response to organ Fight or flight response Hormones
63
Pon function
Connection cerebral cortex to cerebellum
64
Medulla function
Relay information from spinal chord to thalamus such as taste and feeling.
65
Telencephalon
Deals with high level processing
66
Diencephalon/thalamus
Supports mammalian brain, parenting and four basic f’s
67
Midbrain
Helps keep us safe. Deals with visual orientation and motor reflexes
68
Hindbrain
Controls physiological needs and homeostasis
69
Tract
CNS axons
70
Nerve
PNS axons
71
Locus
Well defined group of cells
72
Ganglion
Collection of neurons in PNS
73
Substantia
Less distinct borders of group of neuron
74
Nucleus
Well defined group of neurons
75
Corner function
Acts as first lens and has focusing power by refracting light.
76
Where is central part of vision located
Back of brain
77
Where is perennial areas of visual field located
More Anteriorly
78
Top part of visual field is located ____ Bottom is located ____
Top-lower part Bottom-upper part
79
Where is central part of vision located
Back of brain
80
Where is perennial areas of visual field located
More Anteriorly
81
Top part of visual field is located ____ Bottom is located ____
Top-lower part Bottom-upper part
82
Number of rods
100 million
83
Number of cones
5-6 million
84
Number of ganglion cells
It has about 50 rods and cones. In fovea ganglion cells gave 12-20 of them for high definition
85
What is center surround receptive fields
Two concentric areas with antagonistic responses to light on and light off
86
What is reFLECtion
Light rays bouncing off a surface
87
Only retinal neurons that fire action potentials
Ganglion cells
88
What is a receptive field
Area of retina that when stimulated with light, changes a cells membrane potential
89
What is dark current
Photoreceptors are depolarizer in the dark because of a steady influx of sodium ions
90
What is focal distance
Refractive surface to point where parallel rays converge
91
I why do we say that ganglion cells are mainly responsive to differences in illumination that occur within receptive field
Center surround ganglion cells respond best when a light or dark edge falls at boundary between the center and surround regions of receptive field
92
Which layer of retinal neurons has axons leave retina
Ganglion cells
93
Spatial sensitivity of green cone pigment
530 nm
94
What is meant by phototransduction
Process that occurs hen photoreceptors convert light energy in neuronal membrane potential
95
Why is retina said to be duplex
It works under both scotopic and photopic lighting conditions
96
Distinguish between m cells and p cells
M cells respond with transient burst of action potentials and p cells respond with a sustained discharge
97
What is visual acuity
Ability of the eye to distinguish two nearby points
98
Choroid plexus
Produce CSF and form blood CSF barrier
99
Nucleus
A clearly distinguishable mass of neurons usually deep in the brain Substantia is like this but with less defined borders
100
What does Weber’s law state
The brighter the light, the more change in brightness is required for us to notice a difference
101
What does Weber’s law state
The brighter the light, the more change in brightness is required for us to notice a difference
102
Henninger synapses
Synapses that can be modified
103
Hebbian modifications
Synaptic rearrangement
104
Retinal activity and synapses
Whenever a wave of retinal activity drives a postsynaptic LGN neuron to fire an action potential, the synapse between them are stabilized
105
Cells of V1
They detect direction of certain properties (lines, orientation, edges) They are automatic and fast
106
Simple cells
Have excitatory and inhibitory areas They respond most to lines or bars of orientated light
107
Complex cells
No fixed excitatory or inhibitory areas They respond most to a moving line or bar
108
Hyper complex cells
Primary stimuli is a moving bar of light like the complex cells except the bar has an end Located in V1 and v2
109
Hyper complex cells
Primary stimuli is a moving bar of light like the complex cells except the bar has an end Located in V1 and v2
110
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of?
Nerves and ganglion outside of the brain and spinal cord. Its not protected by bone or the blood brain barrier like the CNS so its more exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries
111
What is a way to avoid spine bediphia
Folic acid
112
What are the divisions of the PNS?
Somatic nervous system-associated with body under voluntary control. (cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are in CNS but axons in PNS) (somatic sensory neurons lie outside of spinal cord in clusters called dorsal root ganglia. There is a dorsal root ganglia for each spinal nerve) Autonomic nervous system-involuntary control over smooth muscle and glands. Also called visceral PNS. It rings info about visceral functions to CNS such as oxygen content in blood.
113
Somatic nervous system
associated with body under voluntary control. (cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are in CNS but axons in PNS) (somatic sensory neurons lie outside of spinal cord in clusters called dorsal root ganglia. There is a dorsal root ganglia for each spinal nerve)
114
Autonomic nervous system
involuntary control over smooth muscle and glands. Also called visceral PNS. It rings info about visceral functions to CNS such as oxygen content in blood.
115
What are the divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic nervous system-fight or flight (stimulatory) Parasympathetic nervous system-rest and digest (inhibitory)
116
What happens if dura is ruptured?
Blood can collect in between dura and arachnoid which is called a subdural hematoma. This buildup of fluid can disrupt brain function by compressing parts of CNS. This can be fixed by drilling a hole in the skull
117
What is the binocular visual field?
The central portion of both left and right hemifields put together
118
Ocular dominance columns
Bands of cells extending through the thickness of the striate cortex. They contain neurons with input dominated by one eye and the columns alternate between left and right eye
119
Orientation selectivity
Neurons that prefer a particular orientation. Thee neurons can be in columns called orientation columns. Their greatest response is given to a bar with a particular orientation
120
Organization of the lgn
Its arranged in six distinct layers of cells. Different types of retinal info are being kept separate at this synaptic relay
121
How do neurons of retinal ganglion cells and lgn cells respond to stimulation pf their receptive field centers?
Increase in the frequency of action potentials.
122
How to record a ganglion cells receptive field
Record the neurons axon in the optic nerve Small spot of light projected onto retina Receptive field consist of locations that increase or decrease cells firing rate Move light to map region of the visual field that causes spiking in the ganglion cell (light anywhere outside of its field will have no firing rate)
123
What is the membrane potential of rods photoreceptos in the dark
-30mV
124
steps of transduction of light by rods
light bleaches rhodopsin g protein is stimulated effector enzyme is activated PDE (the effector enzyme) reduces cGMP level Na+ channels close and cell membrane hyperpolarizes
125
Role of calcium in light adaptation
Ca2+ enters a cone through he same cGMP channels as Na. it inhibits the synthesis of cGMP
126
what happens when dark in ganglion cells hits middle receptive field vs when its in the areas that surround the center of receptive field?
Center-cell depolarizes Surround-hyperpolarize If darkness fills the surrpund, the center response is canceled

Neuroscience (20 decks)

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